Los sistemas alimentarios alternativos son aquellos que quedan fuera del alcance de la agricultura convencional, normalmente para crear sistemas alimentarios sostenibles .

Local food systems

Food systems local food systems are networks of food production and consumption that aim to be geographically and economically accessible and direct. They contrast with industrial food systems by operating with reduced food transportation and more direct marketing, putting fewer people between farmer and consumer. As a result, the relationships that develop in local food systems arise from face-to-face interactions, which can lead to a greater sense of trust and social connection between actors.[22]​ In addition to this, consumers can also encourage farmers to be environmentally friendly by teaching them about practices such as organic farming.[23]​ As a result, some scholars suggest that local food systems are a good way to revitalize a community.[24]​ Decreasing the distance of food transportation as well. It has been promoted for its environmental benefits.[25]​ In addition, farmers can enjoy a better quality of life because producing healthier food will allow them to earn more and not live below the poverty line.[26]​.

Both advocates and critics of local food systems warn that they can lead to narrow inward-looking attitudes or "local food patriotism,"[27] and that overpricing and local food cultures can be elitist and exclusive.[28] In contrast, many food sovereignty activists argue that local food production is essential to achieving food security, especially among indigenous communities, and is therefore crucial to the public health of those communities. communities.[29]​.

Examples of local food systems include community supported agriculture, farmers markets, and farm-to-school programs. They have been associated with the 100-Mile Diet and the low-carbon diet, as well as the slow food movement. The food sovereignty movement is also related to local food production. Food sovereignty activists argue that not only should local communities have access to nutritious and culturally appropriate foods, but those communities should also be able to define the means by which their food is produced.[30] Various forms of urban agriculture locate food production in densely populated areas not traditionally associated with agriculture. Shared gardens"), where urban and suburban landowners offer access to land to food producers in exchange for a share of the harvest, is a relatively new trend, at the extreme of direct local food production.

Organic food systems

Organic food systems are characterized by less dependence on chemical inputs and greater concern for transparency and information. Organic produce is grown without the chemical pesticides and fertilizers of industrial food systems, and livestock is raised without the use of antibiotics or growth hormones. The reduced inputs of organic farming can also lead to greater reliance on local knowledge, creating a stronger knowledge community among farmers.[31]​[32]​ Transparency of food information is vital to organic food systems as a means by which consumers can identify organic foods.[33]​ As a result, a variety of certification bodies have emerged in organic food systems that set standards for organic identification. Organic farming is promoted for the ecological benefits of reduced chemical application, the health benefits of reduced chemical consumption, the economic benefits farmers gain through premium pricing, and the social benefits of greater transparency in the food system.

Like local food systems, organic food systems have been criticized for being elitist and inaccessible. Critics have also suggested that organic farming has become conventionalized in such a way that it mimics industrial food systems that use organically derived pesticides and fertilizers.[34]

Cooperatives in food systems

Cooperatives can exist on both the farmer side of food production and the consumer side. Agricultural cooperatives refer to arrangements in which farmers pool resources, either to grow their crops or to bring them to market. Consumer cooperatives often refer to food cooperatives where members buy a share in the store. Cooperative grocery stores, unlike corporate grocery stores, are socially owned and therefore surpluses cannot be taken from the store as profits. As a result, food cooperatives do not operate for profit, potentially keeping prices more representative of costs. Other forms of cooperatives that have developed more recently include community supported agriculture, where community members purchase a share of a farm's harvest and can also participate in farm work, operating at both the consumer and producer ends of food systems. Shared gardens" form pairs of individual landowners and food producers, while variations of this approach organize groups of gardeners for mutual assistance.

The benefits of cooperatives lie primarily in the redistribution of risk and responsibility. In the case of agricultural cooperatives that share resources, the burden of investment is distributed to all members, rather than being concentrated on a single individual. One criticism of cooperatives is that reduced competition can reduce efficiency[35]​.

fair trade

Fair trade has emerged in global food systems to create a greater balance between the price of food and the cost of producing it. It is largely defined by more direct systems of communication and trade through which producers have greater control over the conditions of trade and obtain a greater fraction of the sales price. The main objective of Fair Trade is "to change international trade relations in such a way that disadvantaged producers can increase their control over their own future, have a fair and equitable return for their work, continuity of income and decent living and working conditions through development"[37]​ Like organic food systems, fair trade is based on transparency and the flow of information.[38]​ Well-known examples of fair trade products are coffee and cocoa.

New agricultural technologies

Vertical farms, automation, solar energy production, new alternatives to pesticides, online food delivery ICT and other technologies can allow food production to be localized or modified along with policies such as green tariffs, targeted subsidies and meat taxes.

Effects of climate change

The IPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land describes that the current global food system has potentially significant risks to food security due to changes created by climate change, including changes in local climatic conditions, the socioeconomic effects of climate change, the vulnerability of certain types of agriculture (such as pastoral), and changes in diet due to availability.[4]​.

Effects on climate change

The food system is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions, attributable to between 21% and 37% of global emissions.[4] In 2020, a review of the evidence for the European Union's Scientific Advisory Mechanism found that, without significant changes, emissions would increase by 30% to 40% by 2050 due to population growth and changing consumption patterns, and concluded that "the combined environmental cost of food production is estimated to be about $12 trillion a year, rising to $16 trillion by 2050."[7] Another 2020 study concluded that reducing emissions from the global food system is essential to achieving the climate goals of the Paris Agreement.[39][40]​.

European Union

The European Union's Scientific Advisory Mechanism has published a systematic review of all European policies related to sustainable food systems and their analyzes in the academic literature.[41]​.

In September 2019, the EU's chief scientific advisors stated that adapting the European food system for the future should be a high priority for the EU:[42]​.

In 2020, the EU put improvements in the food system at the center of the European Green Deal. The European Commission's 'Farm to Fork Strategy for a Sustainable Food System', to be published in spring 2020, is expected to set out how European countries will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, protect biodiversity, reduce food waste and the use of chemical pesticides, contributing to a circular economy.[43]​.

In 2020, the EU's Scientific Advice Mechanism provided European Commissioners with a scientific opinion on how to transition to a sustainable food system, informed by an evidence review report by European academies.[44]

La transparencia dentro de los sistemas alimentarios se refiere a la divulgación completa de información sobre reglas, procedimientos y prácticas en todos los niveles dentro de una cadena de producción y suministro de alimentos.[45]​ La transparencia garantiza que los consumidores tengan información detallada sobre la producción de un alimento determinado. La rastreabilidad, por el contrario, es la capacidad de rastrear hasta sus orígenes todos los componentes de una cadena de producción y comercialización de alimentos, ya sean alimentos procesados o no procesados (por ejemplo, carne, verduras). Las preocupaciones sobre la transparencia y la trazabilidad se han incrementado con las amenazas de seguridad alimentaria "Seguridad alimentaria (inocuidad)") como la encefalopatía espongiforme bovina (EEB) y Escherichia coli (E. coli), pero no se refieren exclusivamente a la seguridad alimentaria "Seguridad alimentaria (inocuidad)"). La transparencia también es importante para identificar alimentos que poseen cualidades extrínsecas que no afectan la naturaleza del alimento en sí, pero afectan su producción, como el bienestar animal, cuestiones de justicia social y preocupaciones ambientales.[46]​.

Una de las principales formas en que se logra la transparencia es mediante la certificación y/o el uso de etiquetas alimentarias. En los Estados Unidos, algunas certificaciones se originan en el sector público, como la etiqueta orgánica del Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USDA). Otros tienen su origen en la certificación del sector privado (por ejemplo, Humanely Raised, Certified Humane). También hay etiquetas que no dependen de la certificación, como la etiqueta de país de origen (COOL, del inglés Country of Origin Label) del USDA.

La participación en los sistemas alimentarios locales como la Agricultura Apoyada por la Comunidad (CSA), los Mercados de Agricultores, las cooperativas de alimentos y las cooperativas de agricultores también mejora la transparencia, y existen diversos programas que promueven la compra de alimentos cultivados y comercializados localmente.

Labeled

• - Agroecology.

• - Aquaculture.

• - Cellular agriculture").

• - Family farming.

• - Organic farming.

• - Sustainable agriculture.

• - Industrial agriculture.

• - Agrobiodiversity.

• - Organic foods.

• - Animal welfare.

• - Food chain.

• - Agricultural value chain.

• - Organic certification").

• - Fair Trade Certification").

• - Intensive livestock farming.

• - Food industry.

• - Food security.

• - Traceability.

• - Univ. of Wisconsin - Agroecology.

• - UC Santa Cruz Center for Agroecology & Sustainable Food Systems.

• - Food for Cities Initiative of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).

Contenido

Los sistemas alimentarios convencionales operan con economías de escala. Estos sistemas alimentarios están orientados hacia un modelo de producción que requiere maximizar la eficiencia para reducir los costos de consumo y aumentar la producción general, y utilizan modelos económicos como la integración vertical, la especialización económica y el comercio global. La creciente degradación de la calidad del suelo, el cambio climático y la creciente población mundial ejercen presión sobre las tierras agrícolas, lo que lleva a innovaciones para aumentar la productividad agrícola en la tierra y el espacio urbano disponibles limitados. Aunque las prácticas agrícolas convencionales han aumentado el rendimiento de los cultivos mediante el uso de la agricultura climáticamente inteligente (CSA), los sistemas agrícolas de pequeños agricultores y el conocimiento limitado de CSA siguen siendo limitaciones para disfrutar de economías de escala y una producción agrícola sostenible y seguridad alimentaria.[11]​.

El término "convencional" al describir los sistemas alimentarios se debe en gran parte a las comparaciones que le hacen los proponentes de otros sistemas alimentarios, conocidos colectivamente como sistemas alimentarios alternativos.

History of conventional food systems

The development of food systems dates back to the origins of in situ agriculture and the production of food surpluses. These surpluses allowed the development of populated areas and contributed to the development of ancient civilizations, particularly those of the Fertile Crescent.[12]​ The system of trade associated with the exchange of food products also emerged in East Asia, North America, South America and Sub-Saharan Africa with common exchange products such as salt, spices, fish, cereals "Grain (seed)"), etc.[13]​ Through events in world history such as the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Crusades, The spread of Islam, the voyages of Marco Polo, and the exploration and colonization of the Americas by Europeans led to the introduction and redistribution of new foods to the world. After World War II, the advent of industrialized agriculture and more robust global trade mechanisms have become the patterns of food production, presentation, delivery, and disposal that characterize conventional food systems today.[14]​.

Impacts of conventional food systems

Lower food costs and greater food variety can be directly attributed to the evolution of conventional food systems. Agronomic efficiency is driven by the need to constantly reduce production expenses, and those savings can be passed on to the consumer. Furthermore, the advent of industrial agriculture and infrastructure built around conventional food systems has allowed the world's population to expand beyond the limitations of the "Malthusian catastrophe." According to the IPCC, the per capita food supply has increased by more than 30% since 1961.[4]​.

However, conventional food systems rely heavily on the availability of inexpensive fossil fuels, which are necessary for mechanized agriculture, the manufacturing or harvesting of chemical fertilizers, the processing of food products, and the packaging of food.[15] The increase in food availability since 1961 has been driven largely by an 800% increase in the use of nitrogen fertilizers (which is dependent on fossil fuels) and high water use (an increase of over 100% since 1961).[4]​.

The impacts of these resource-intensive processes are wide-ranging: Food processing began when the number of consumers began to grow rapidly. Demand for cheap and efficient calories increased, leading to decreased nutrition;[15]​ and industrialized agriculture, due to its reliance on economies of scale to reduce production costs, often leads to the compromise of local, regional, or even global ecosystems through fertilizer runoff, nonpoint source pollution[16]​, and greenhouse gas emissions.

The need to reduce production costs in an increasingly globalized market can cause food production to move to areas where economic costs (labor, taxes, etc.) are lower or environmental regulations are more lax, which are usually further away from consumer markets. For example, the majority of salmon sold in the United States is farmed off the coast of Chile, due in large part to less stringent Chilean standards regarding fish feeding and regardless of the fact that salmon is not indigenous to Chilean coastal waters.[17] Globalization of food production can result in the loss of traditional food systems in less developed countries and have negative impacts on population health, ecosystems, and cultures. those countries.[18]​ As a result of these forces, 2018 estimates suggest that 821 million people are currently undernourished and 2 billion adults are overweight and obese.[4]​.

The issue of having minimal access to food, or access to primarily unhealthy food, is often described in terms of food security. The 1996 World Food Summit defined food security as a state in which.

Many groups argue that food security is largely determined by a person's socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, or other socially defined category, making access to food a social justice issue. This has given rise to numerous social movements aimed at increasing access to healthy, culturally appropriate foods, among a wide variety of groups. These movements are often described as belonging to a broader food justice movement.").

Scientists estimated the risks of extensive pesticide contamination worldwide with a new environmental model and found that one third of global agricultural land is at high risk of contamination of which one third are high biodiversity regions.[20][21]​.

Los sistemas alimentarios alternativos son aquellos que quedan fuera del alcance de la agricultura convencional, normalmente para crear sistemas alimentarios sostenibles .

Local food systems

Food systems local food systems are networks of food production and consumption that aim to be geographically and economically accessible and direct. They contrast with industrial food systems by operating with reduced food transportation and more direct marketing, putting fewer people between farmer and consumer. As a result, the relationships that develop in local food systems arise from face-to-face interactions, which can lead to a greater sense of trust and social connection between actors.[22]​ In addition to this, consumers can also encourage farmers to be environmentally friendly by teaching them about practices such as organic farming.[23]​ As a result, some scholars suggest that local food systems are a good way to revitalize a community.[24]​ Decreasing the distance of food transportation as well. It has been promoted for its environmental benefits.[25]​ In addition, farmers can enjoy a better quality of life because producing healthier food will allow them to earn more and not live below the poverty line.[26]​.

Both advocates and critics of local food systems warn that they can lead to narrow inward-looking attitudes or "local food patriotism,"[27] and that overpricing and local food cultures can be elitist and exclusive.[28] In contrast, many food sovereignty activists argue that local food production is essential to achieving food security, especially among indigenous communities, and is therefore crucial to the public health of those communities. communities.[29]​.

Examples of local food systems include community supported agriculture, farmers markets, and farm-to-school programs. They have been associated with the 100-Mile Diet and the low-carbon diet, as well as the slow food movement. The food sovereignty movement is also related to local food production. Food sovereignty activists argue that not only should local communities have access to nutritious and culturally appropriate foods, but those communities should also be able to define the means by which their food is produced.[30] Various forms of urban agriculture locate food production in densely populated areas not traditionally associated with agriculture. Shared gardens"), where urban and suburban landowners offer access to land to food producers in exchange for a share of the harvest, is a relatively new trend, at the extreme of direct local food production.

Organic food systems

Organic food systems are characterized by less dependence on chemical inputs and greater concern for transparency and information. Organic produce is grown without the chemical pesticides and fertilizers of industrial food systems, and livestock is raised without the use of antibiotics or growth hormones. The reduced inputs of organic farming can also lead to greater reliance on local knowledge, creating a stronger knowledge community among farmers.[31]​[32]​ Transparency of food information is vital to organic food systems as a means by which consumers can identify organic foods.[33]​ As a result, a variety of certification bodies have emerged in organic food systems that set standards for organic identification. Organic farming is promoted for the ecological benefits of reduced chemical application, the health benefits of reduced chemical consumption, the economic benefits farmers gain through premium pricing, and the social benefits of greater transparency in the food system.

Like local food systems, organic food systems have been criticized for being elitist and inaccessible. Critics have also suggested that organic farming has become conventionalized in such a way that it mimics industrial food systems that use organically derived pesticides and fertilizers.[34]

Cooperatives in food systems

Cooperatives can exist on both the farmer side of food production and the consumer side. Agricultural cooperatives refer to arrangements in which farmers pool resources, either to grow their crops or to bring them to market. Consumer cooperatives often refer to food cooperatives where members buy a share in the store. Cooperative grocery stores, unlike corporate grocery stores, are socially owned and therefore surpluses cannot be taken from the store as profits. As a result, food cooperatives do not operate for profit, potentially keeping prices more representative of costs. Other forms of cooperatives that have developed more recently include community supported agriculture, where community members purchase a share of a farm's harvest and can also participate in farm work, operating at both the consumer and producer ends of food systems. Shared gardens" form pairs of individual landowners and food producers, while variations of this approach organize groups of gardeners for mutual assistance.

The benefits of cooperatives lie primarily in the redistribution of risk and responsibility. In the case of agricultural cooperatives that share resources, the burden of investment is distributed to all members, rather than being concentrated on a single individual. One criticism of cooperatives is that reduced competition can reduce efficiency[35]​.

fair trade

Fair trade has emerged in global food systems to create a greater balance between the price of food and the cost of producing it. It is largely defined by more direct systems of communication and trade through which producers have greater control over the conditions of trade and obtain a greater fraction of the sales price. The main objective of Fair Trade is "to change international trade relations in such a way that disadvantaged producers can increase their control over their own future, have a fair and equitable return for their work, continuity of income and decent living and working conditions through development"[37]​ Like organic food systems, fair trade is based on transparency and the flow of information.[38]​ Well-known examples of fair trade products are coffee and cocoa.

New agricultural technologies

Vertical farms, automation, solar energy production, new alternatives to pesticides, online food delivery ICT and other technologies can allow food production to be localized or modified along with policies such as green tariffs, targeted subsidies and meat taxes.

Effects of climate change

The IPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land describes that the current global food system has potentially significant risks to food security due to changes created by climate change, including changes in local climatic conditions, the socioeconomic effects of climate change, the vulnerability of certain types of agriculture (such as pastoral), and changes in diet due to availability.[4]​.

Effects on climate change

The food system is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions, attributable to between 21% and 37% of global emissions.[4] In 2020, a review of the evidence for the European Union's Scientific Advisory Mechanism found that, without significant changes, emissions would increase by 30% to 40% by 2050 due to population growth and changing consumption patterns, and concluded that "the combined environmental cost of food production is estimated to be about $12 trillion a year, rising to $16 trillion by 2050."[7] Another 2020 study concluded that reducing emissions from the global food system is essential to achieving the climate goals of the Paris Agreement.[39][40]​.

European Union

The European Union's Scientific Advisory Mechanism has published a systematic review of all European policies related to sustainable food systems and their analyzes in the academic literature.[41]​.

In September 2019, the EU's chief scientific advisors stated that adapting the European food system for the future should be a high priority for the EU:[42]​.

In 2020, the EU put improvements in the food system at the center of the European Green Deal. The European Commission's 'Farm to Fork Strategy for a Sustainable Food System', to be published in spring 2020, is expected to set out how European countries will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, protect biodiversity, reduce food waste and the use of chemical pesticides, contributing to a circular economy.[43]​.

In 2020, the EU's Scientific Advice Mechanism provided European Commissioners with a scientific opinion on how to transition to a sustainable food system, informed by an evidence review report by European academies.[44]

La transparencia dentro de los sistemas alimentarios se refiere a la divulgación completa de información sobre reglas, procedimientos y prácticas en todos los niveles dentro de una cadena de producción y suministro de alimentos.[45]​ La transparencia garantiza que los consumidores tengan información detallada sobre la producción de un alimento determinado. La rastreabilidad, por el contrario, es la capacidad de rastrear hasta sus orígenes todos los componentes de una cadena de producción y comercialización de alimentos, ya sean alimentos procesados o no procesados (por ejemplo, carne, verduras). Las preocupaciones sobre la transparencia y la trazabilidad se han incrementado con las amenazas de seguridad alimentaria "Seguridad alimentaria (inocuidad)") como la encefalopatía espongiforme bovina (EEB) y Escherichia coli (E. coli), pero no se refieren exclusivamente a la seguridad alimentaria "Seguridad alimentaria (inocuidad)"). La transparencia también es importante para identificar alimentos que poseen cualidades extrínsecas que no afectan la naturaleza del alimento en sí, pero afectan su producción, como el bienestar animal, cuestiones de justicia social y preocupaciones ambientales.[46]​.

Una de las principales formas en que se logra la transparencia es mediante la certificación y/o el uso de etiquetas alimentarias. En los Estados Unidos, algunas certificaciones se originan en el sector público, como la etiqueta orgánica del Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USDA). Otros tienen su origen en la certificación del sector privado (por ejemplo, Humanely Raised, Certified Humane). También hay etiquetas que no dependen de la certificación, como la etiqueta de país de origen (COOL, del inglés Country of Origin Label) del USDA.

La participación en los sistemas alimentarios locales como la Agricultura Apoyada por la Comunidad (CSA), los Mercados de Agricultores, las cooperativas de alimentos y las cooperativas de agricultores también mejora la transparencia, y existen diversos programas que promueven la compra de alimentos cultivados y comercializados localmente.

Labeled

• - Agroecology.

• - Aquaculture.

• - Cellular agriculture").

• - Family farming.

• - Organic farming.

• - Sustainable agriculture.

• - Industrial agriculture.

• - Agrobiodiversity.

• - Organic foods.

• - Animal welfare.

• - Food chain.

• - Agricultural value chain.

• - Organic certification").

• - Fair Trade Certification").

• - Intensive livestock farming.

• - Food industry.

• - Food security.

• - Traceability.

• - Univ. of Wisconsin - Agroecology.

• - UC Santa Cruz Center for Agroecology & Sustainable Food Systems.

• - Food for Cities Initiative of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).