Catalan modernism was a cultural movement that occurred in Catalonia between the end of the century and the beginning of the 20th century, which was reflected in art (architecture, painting, sculpture and other artistic disciplines) as well as in literature, music and various cultural manifestations. It was the culmination of a process of cultural renaissance - the Renaixença - that meant both the revaluation of the Catalan language and a period of splendor in all fields of culture - one of the few in which it was comparable to any of the main artistic centers of the time on the European continent -,[1] accompanied by a period of economic well-being sponsored by the rise of the Catalan bourgeoisie and its great industrial, commercial and financial development.
This movement does not have an exact chronological dating, although its starting point is usually placed at the Barcelona Universal Exposition "Exposition Universal de Barcelona (1888)") of 1888 and its end at the Tragic Week "Semana Trágica (Spain)") of 1909. However, various authors place both the beginning and the end a few years up or down, depending on various historical, artistic or cultural events. In terms of its geographical scope, the main reference is Catalonia, although there are works of Catalan modernism outside the Principality, especially with regard to architecture, since several Catalan architects also worked in the rest of Spain and even abroad.
Modernism was an international movement that developed throughout Europe, with regional differences depending on each country, a fact that is denoted by the various names it received: Art Nouveau in France, Modern Style in the United Kingdom, Jugendstil in Germany, Sezession in Austria or Liberty in Italy. However, just as in those countries it was a predominantly artistic movement, in Catalonia it occurred in all areas of culture, a fact that, added to the peculiar stylistic seal that developed in this region, has allowed us to speak of a fully autonomous "Catalan" modernism, differentiated from other European modernisms. On the other hand, in the rest of Spain, modernism had little implementation, with regional exponents also limited to its territorial scope and not related to Catalan modernism, which makes it a singular and differentiated movement.
More than a style or a trend, Catalan modernism was a cultural movement that sought to modernize and regenerate Catalan culture. It was an innovative and original movement, which sought through art – expressed in all its facets – to build a modern culture with a national sign, while linked to new European currents. This movement conceived of art as a universal phenomenon and defended the interdependence of all the arts. Modernism connected with the cultural renaissance initiated by the , but with the desire to modernize it, to integrate Catalan culture into the European avant-garde. Inspired by trends such as , he advocated the integration of all the arts, from architecture and the plastic arts to graphic design and applied and industrial arts, as well as interior design and design.
Catalan Modernism
Introduction
Catalan modernism was a cultural movement that occurred in Catalonia between the end of the century and the beginning of the 20th century, which was reflected in art (architecture, painting, sculpture and other artistic disciplines) as well as in literature, music and various cultural manifestations. It was the culmination of a process of cultural renaissance - the Renaixença - that meant both the revaluation of the Catalan language and a period of splendor in all fields of culture - one of the few in which it was comparable to any of the main artistic centers of the time on the European continent -,[1] accompanied by a period of economic well-being sponsored by the rise of the Catalan bourgeoisie and its great industrial, commercial and financial development.
This movement does not have an exact chronological dating, although its starting point is usually placed at the Barcelona Universal Exposition "Exposition Universal de Barcelona (1888)") of 1888 and its end at the Tragic Week "Semana Trágica (Spain)") of 1909. However, various authors place both the beginning and the end a few years up or down, depending on various historical, artistic or cultural events. In terms of its geographical scope, the main reference is Catalonia, although there are works of Catalan modernism outside the Principality, especially with regard to architecture, since several Catalan architects also worked in the rest of Spain and even abroad.
Modernism was an international movement that developed throughout Europe, with regional differences depending on each country, a fact that is denoted by the various names it received: Art Nouveau in France, Modern Style in the United Kingdom, Jugendstil in Germany, Sezession in Austria or Liberty in Italy. However, just as in those countries it was a predominantly artistic movement, in Catalonia it occurred in all areas of culture, a fact that, added to the peculiar stylistic seal that developed in this region, has allowed us to speak of a fully autonomous "Catalan" modernism, differentiated from other European modernisms. On the other hand, in the rest of Spain, modernism had little implementation, with regional exponents also limited to its territorial scope and not related to Catalan modernism, which makes it a singular and differentiated movement.
Renaixença
Arts and Crafts
Modernism stood out especially in architecture, with a series of names that have become references of global relevance, especially Antoni Gaudí, Lluís Domènech i Montaner and Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Modernist architecture was largely heir to the previous currents, historicism and eclecticism, with which it coexisted for a time. Its starting point can be placed in the Universal Exhibition of 1888, although there are various antecedents that are usually described as "pre-modernism", while its end is in the 1920s, although by then it was already in decline, especially since the emergence of Noucentisme the previous decade. Modernism did not in fact contribute anything new to the structural wealth of the construction technique and was manifested above all in the field of ornamentation, with a decorative style with romantic roots that brought together various influences from previous styles, especially Gothic and oriental architecture. Perhaps the main innovations were those introduced by Gaudí, who developed an organic style inspired by nature, based on regulated geometry.
Modernist painting developed in connection with the main current currents in Europe, especially impressionism and symbolism. Its introducers were Ramón Casas and Santiago Rusiñol, both of whom had brief stays in Paris, where they were able to catch up on the main developments of the time. After a first generation of painters, a series of young artists formed a second generation, generally described as "postmodernism"[note 1] in which there are names such as Joaquín Mir, Isidro Nonell, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa and Francisco Gimeno, as well as the presence of a young Pablo Picasso, who entered the Barcelona modernist environment around the year 1900, a fact that would mark a change in his career and his affiliation to avant-garde art.
The sculpture was heir to Romanticism, although it later received the influence of French symbolism, especially the work of Auguste Rodin. The names of Josep Llimona, Eusebi Arnau, Miguel Blay and Enric Clarasó stand out, who were preceded by a pre-modernist generation and also succeeded by another post-modernist one. In addition to free-standing sculpture, sculpture applied to architecture was of great relevance, given the ornamental character of modernist architecture; Funerary and commemorative sculpture also gained great popularity.
Modernism also stood out in the field of design, graphic and decorative arts, generating a large number of quality works in fields such as poster art, printing, goldsmithing, ceramics, carpentry and cabinetmaking, forging, glasswork, mosaic and others. Modernism sought to bring together all the arts and crafts into a unity that encompassed everything, which is why it treated any artistic work with equal care, from the smallest and most modest to the largest. On the other hand, given the ornamental nature of this style, the decorative arts had a great boom and received the same appreciation as the major arts.
Literature also experienced a time of great splendor, marked by a desire to modernize and regenerate culture and language, separating itself from the previous generation - of the naturalistic sign "Naturalism (literature)") - in search of new forms of expression. As in the rest of the arts, European influence was received, especially symbolism and Parnassianism, as well as the realistic drama of Ibsen and, in the field of philosophy, the work of Nietzsche. The main authors were Víctor Català, Prudenci Bertrana and Joaquim Ruyra in narrative; Joan Maragall in poetry; and Santiago Rusiñol, Ignasi Iglesias and Adrián Gual in theater.
Music was heir to Romanticism, as well as the new currents that emerged in the second half of the century around musical nationalism. One of the most influential figures was Richard Wagner, whose work was highly appreciated in Catalonia, as denoted by the foundation in 1901 of the Wagnerian Association of Barcelona; Likewise, Italian opera was highly appreciated. The most notable composers were Felipe Pedrell, Isaac Albéniz, Enrique Granados, Enric Morera, Amadeo Vives and Lluís Millet. Modernism was also present in the genres of opera, zarzuela and dance.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that modernism was also manifested in photography and cinema, although to a lesser extent and more as a period within the historical succession of these arts in Catalonia than as a defined style.
Origin
Historical context
The century had a turbulent start in Spain as a whole, due to the War of Independence with France resulting from the Napoleonic invasion. In 1812, the first Spanish Constitution was promulgated,[5] which led to the modernization of State structures, but expectations were soon frustrated with the reinstatement of absolutism by Ferdinand VII. Thus, the century was polarized by the struggle between conservative and liberal parties, to which was added the emergence of Carlism due to the succession dispute between the daughter of Fernando VII (Isabel II) and his brother, Carlos María Isidro.[6].
In 1868 a revolution - nicknamed the Glorious - began the so-called Democratic Sexennium (1868-1874), which led to the exile of Isabel II and the brief reign of Amadeo of Saboya, until the proclamation of the First Republic, also short-lived, since a coup d'état in 1874 opened the way for monarchical restoration, in the person of Alfonso XII,[7] a period of political stability thanks to the alternation of conservatives - led by Cánovas del Castillo - and liberals - led by Sagasta.[8].
The end of the century was a turbulent time of great social unrest: Catalanism emerged as a movement of discontent with the centralist politics developed in Madrid, which was reflected in the celebration in 1880 of the First Catalan Congress, the delivery in 1885 to King Alfonso the struggle between employers and unions. Between the end of the century and the beginning of the century, there were revolts and bomb attacks proliferated, such as the one carried out in 1893 against General Martínez Campos, the one at the Liceo Theater the same year or the Corpus Christi procession in 1896, which caused harsh repression - known as the Montjuic trials.[10].
In the economic field, the Industrial Revolution had a rapid implementation in Catalonia, being a pioneer in the national territory in the implementation of manufacturing procedures initiated in Great Britain in the 19th century. In 1800 there were one hundred and fifty textile factories in Barcelona, whose industry had continuous growth until the crisis of 1861, motivated by the cotton shortage due to the American Civil War. colonies - mainly Cuba -, those of the so-called Indians.[13] Between 1876 and 1886 there was the so-called Gold Rush "Gold Rush (Catalonia)"), a period of economic prosperity that arose in a climate of financial speculation "Speculation (economy)") through credit societies.[14] In 1886 the Barcelona Chamber of Commerce was founded, which promoted the interests of businessmen. and Catalan industrialists.[15].
At the turn of the century, a new political scenario opened, marked by the loss of colonies in America and Asia and the rise of the Regionalist League, led by politicians such as Francisco Cambó, Enric Prat de la Riba and the architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch. (Spain)"), due to the successive defeats of the Spanish army in Morocco, which forced the government to recruit new levies to send to the front, which were mainly nourished by humble people, since the favored classes could buy the dispensation for a modest amount of money. This event sparked a popular uprising in Barcelona, which channeled the anger and frustration of the working class over its marginal situation. The revolt was put down by the army, with a balance of two thousand five hundred detained, who were tried militarily.[18].
At a social level, it is worth noting that in the period in which modernism developed, numerous associations, companies and entities of relevance to Catalan society emerged, such as the Centro Excursionista de Catalunya (1891), the Orfeón Catalán (1891), the Fútbol Club Barcelona (1899) and the Pension Fund for Old Age and Savings of Catalonia and the Balearic Islands ("la Caixa", 1904).[19].
Cultural renaissance
The economic prosperity and social strength of Catalonia in the century favored a resurgence of Catalan culture, the so-called Renaixença ("Renaissance"). This cultural movement developed approximately between 1830 and 1880, and had as its starting point the Ode to the Homeland by Buenaventura Carlos Aribau (1833), a poem written in Catalan that once again gave prestige to this language for cultured literature.[20] Due to the influence of Romanticism, the Catalan language was revalued as a vehicle of self-expression, which led to a new feeling of national consciousness and the specificity of the culture. Catalan. Literature was encouraged with the creation of the Floral Games, a poetry contest promoted by the Barcelona City Council that began to be held in 1859. New publications such as Calendari Català, Lo Gay Saber and La Renaixensa also spread the movement. Authors such as Aribau, Joaquim Rubió y Ors, Víctor Balaguer, Manuel Milá and Antonio de Bofarull laid the foundations for the Catalan literary resurgence.[21][note 2].
Journalistic publishing and dissemination also increased, with newspapers in Catalan (Lo Verdader Catalá, 1843; Diari Català, 1879; La Veu de Catalunya, 1899) and Spanish (El Telégrafo, 1858; El Correo Catalán, 1876; La Publicidad "La Publicidad (Barcelona)"), 1878; The Flood "The Flood (newspaper)"), 1879; The Vanguard, 1881; El Noticiero Universal, 1888; Las Noticias "Las Noticias (Barcelona)"), 1896). The Diario de Barcelona continued to be published, which, under the direction of Juan Mañé Flaquer, was one of the main references in all of Spain. In 1880 La Ilustració Catalana was born, the first graphic magazine in Catalan.[23].
World's Fair of 1888
In 1888 an event was held that had a great economic, social, urban, artistic and cultural impact for Barcelona and the whole of Catalan modernism: the Barcelona Universal Exhibition "Barcelona Universal Exhibition (1888)"). It took place between April 8 and December 9, 1888 and was held in the Citadel park, land previously belonging to the Army and won for the city in 1868. The incentive of the fair events led to the improvement of the infrastructure of the entire city, which took an enormous leap towards modernization and development.[24] Among other things, the event coincided with the beginning of street lighting with illumination. electrical.[25].
The event involved the remodeling of the Ciudadela park, designed by José Fontseré, in addition to the Salón de San Juan (current Lluís Companys promenade), a long wide avenue that served as the entrance to the Exhibition, at the beginning of which the Arc de Triomphe, designed by José Vilaseca, was located. The Plaza de Cataluña began to be urbanized, a process that would culminate in 1929 thanks to another exhibition, the International Electrical Industries "International Exhibition of Barcelona (1929)"); The Riera d'en Malla was covered, giving rise to the Rambla de Catalunya; Parallel Avenue began; and the Paseo de San Juan was extended towards Gracia and the Gran Vía de las Cortes Catalanas towards the west.[26] The Columbus Monument "Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)") was also erected, at the end of the Rambla, next to the Port of Barcelona. Most of the buildings and pavilions built for the Exhibition disappeared after its completion, although the Castle of the Three Dragons and the Martorell Museum - both integral parts of the Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona -, the Greenhouse and the Umbracle survived, while a part of the park was later occupied by the Barcelona Zoo.[27].
international modernism
Modernism "Modernism (art)") was an international movement that developed throughout the Western world, especially in Europe, where it received various names depending on the place of origin: Art Nouveau in France, Jugendstil in Germany, Sezession in Austria, Liberty in Italy or Modern Style in the United Kingdom.[28][note 3] The consolidation of modernism at an international level occurred with the Universal Exhibition in Paris. "Paris Universal Exhibition (1900)") of 1900[30] and lasted until the start of the First World War.[28].
The term "modernism" arose with the meaning of "taste for the modern", given the intention of creating a new art, in accordance with modernity, with the economic and social project initiated with the Industrial Revolution.[31] Its main social driving force was the bourgeoisie, which advocated a more modern and elegant style, but without losing the roots of the past, and with a certain latent substrate of Romanticism, perceptible in currents such as symbolism and aestheticism - the doctrine of "art". for art »—.[32].
Modernism sought to break with the styles of the past - especially the academic ones -, renewing the artistic language and uniting all the arts in a homogeneous group, with a new original and creative aesthetic vision, detached from industrial production to once again revalue traditional artistic crafts,[31] in parallel to the Arts and Crafts phenomenon.[33] This new style represented an evolutionary link between the architecture of the century, rooted in historical styles, and that of the new century, more refined and modern, whose greatest expression would be rationalism "Rationalism (architecture)"). Although theoretically opposed to historicism, they were inspired by numerous styles of the past, especially medieval, Celtic, oriental and rococo art.[34]
In the field of architecture, two fundamental currents can be seen: one with more historicist roots and a plastic character, with undulating lines, with a certain tendency towards emotionality, represented by France and Belgium - which would include Spain -; and another more severe and rational, with geometric shapes and planimetric composition, which would evolve towards functionalism "Functionalism (architecture)"), developed mainly in Austria and the United Kingdom.[35] The first had its epicenter in Belgium, thanks to the work of Victor Horta, the main representative of Art Nouveau. He was one of the first architects to use iron as a decorative element and designed a series of buildings that combined constructive functionality with a lyrical language, such as the Tassel House in Brussels (1893). Another exponent was Henry Van de Velde. In France, it is worth highlighting the work of Hector Guimard, also an architect and decorator, author of the Castel Béranger (1894-1898) and the Paris Metro stations (1899-1900).[36] In the second current, the English line was heir to the Arts and Crafts movement, a decisive influence on the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh (Glasgow School of Art, 1898-1909). In Austria there was the secessionist movement, a functional style that would decisively influence German rationalism. Its main exponents were Otto Wagner, Joseph Maria Olbrich and Josef Hoffmann.[37].
Despite its unifying desire, Art Nouveau occurred more—in the international context—in architecture and the graphic and applied arts, not so much in the plastic arts, where in any case its most genuine exponents would be artists such as Gustav Klimt, Ferdinand Hodler, Alfons Mucha, Aubrey Beardsley, Jan Toorop, the Nabis "Nabis (artists)") or the Pont-Aven group.[38] As for In sculpture, his main reference would be Auguste Rodin, as well as Constantin Meunier. Due to its ornamental character, modernism represented a great revitalization of the decorative arts, with a new conception more focused on the creative act and on the comparison with the rest of the plastic arts, to the point that its creators proposed for the first time the "unity of the arts." Modernist design generally proposed the revaluation of the intrinsic properties of each material, with organic forms inspired by nature,[39] where the curve and arabesque predominate, the use of flowers and plant shapes, sea waves and animals with sinuous shapes such as butterflies, swans, turkeys and dragonflies.[40] Among its main architects, Émile Gallé (ceramist and glassmaker), René Lalique stood out. (goldsmith), Koloman Moser (designer), Louis Majorelle (cabinet maker) and Louis Comfort Tiffany (jeweler and glass maker).[41].
In the rest of the arts it is difficult to establish parallels, since at the European level there is no literary or musical modernism. In literature, the main contemporary references were Parnassianism and symbolism,[30] while in music, post-romanticism, musical nationalism and French impressionism.[42].
Modernism in Spain
Modernism in Spain was, according to Pedro Navascués, the final phase of eclecticism, with various nuances depending on the region, so, rather than modernism, one could speak of "modernisms", in plural.[43] In the architectural field, its main hallmark would be in relation to ornamentation, since at a structural level few differences are seen with the previous eclecticism and even the advances offered by engineering in the use of iron and metal are taken advantage of. steel.[44] Modernism was developed by local schools, among which, in addition to the Catalan one, the Madrid one, the Valencian one, the Murcian one, the Basque one, the Canarian one and the Melilla one stood out. In Madrid, modernism was mainly influenced by Franco-Belgian Art Nouveau, with exponents such as José Grases Riera and Eduardo Reynals. in Teruel.[46] However, Spanish modernism, characterized by a certain centrifugal seal, developed more in the periphery and the Balearic and Canary archipelagos.[47].
In the north, modernism developed mainly in industrial and tourist environments. Thus, it had an important presence in La Coruña, with authors such as Julio Galán Carvajal, Antonio López Hernández "Antonio López Hernández (architect)"), Pedro Mariño and Rafael González Villar; as well as in Santiago de Compostela - with Jesús López de Rego -, Ferrol (Rodolfo Ucha) and Vigo (Jenaro de la Fuente Domínguez, José Franco Montes).[48] In Asturias, it is worth highlighting Juan Miguel de la Guardia, Luis Bellido, Miguel García de la Cruz and Manuel del Busto.[49] The Basque Country had a notable school, starring Ricardo de Bastida, Julio Saracíbar and Ramón Cortázar Urruzola.[50].
In the Valencian Community, a modernism with a certain Catalan influence developed, since many of its architects were trained at the Barcelona School of Architecture, although with eclectic and regionalist strokes. It is worth highlighting the work of Francisco Mora Berenguer, Carlos Carbonell, Francisco Almenar, Manuel Peris Ferrando, Vicente Ferrer Pérez, Demetrio Ribes and Francisco Javier Goerlich. In addition to the city of Valencia, there were notable exponents in Novelda - with José Sala - and Alcoy, where Timoteo Briet Montaud and Vicente Pascual Pastor worked.[51] In Murcia, the main modernist nucleus was in Cartagena "Cartagena (Spain)"), where the work of Víctor Beltrí stands out.[52] In the Balearic Islands it would be appropriate to highlight Gaspar Bennazar and Francisco Roca Simó.[53].
In Andalusia, we find some modernist exponents in Seville, in the work of architects such as Aníbal González and José Espiau; and, to a lesser extent, in Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain)"), Almería, Málaga, Huelva, Cádiz and Jerez. A notable modernist school emerged in Melilla, led by Enrique Nieto, a Catalan architect who was appointed municipal architect of that city, where he developed a work that largely recalls the modernism of his native land.[54] In the Canary Islands, the main modernist center was Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where Antonio Pintor and Mariano Estanga worked.[55].
In the field of painting we do not find a style similar to that developed in Catalonia. On the one hand, academicism and naturalistic painting survive, while on the other hand, new trends from Europe are being introduced, especially impressionism and symbolism, with exponents such as Aureliano de Beruete, Darío de Regoyos - who frequented the Barcelona modernist circle of Els Quatre Gats and settled in Barcelona in 1910 -, Ignacio Zuloaga and Julio Romero de Torres.[56] In Valencia, a luminist school emerged whose main representative was Joaquín Sorolla, although the work of Ignacio Pinazo is also worth highlighting.[57].
As for sculpture, it proliferated especially in relation to funerary and commemorative monuments, as well as free-standing sculpture and that applied to architecture.[58] It is worth highlighting the Valencian Mariano Benlliure, a prolific sculptor who showed a special predilection for bullfighting and animal themes. Miguel Ángel Trilles was the author of several figures in the Monument to Alfonso XII "Monumento a Alfonso XII (Madrid)"). Francisco Durrio and Nemesio Mogrobejo worked in Bilbao.[59].
In literature, a movement called modernism existed at this time, although without connection with contemporary Catalan literature. Two fundamental lines are perceived: the first, in contrast to the previous realism, focuses on aestheticism, on the search for beauty, as well as the rare, the exotic, the bohemian, with a non-conformist component, challenging the surrounding reality; The second, however, is dedicated to studying the causes of the decline, to delve into the problems of Spain, thereby taking root with the previous realism, but with a desire for renewal. Over time, the first would be called modernism itself, while the second would be known as the Generation of '98.[60] The modernist line was developed especially in poetry, where the influence of symbolism and French Parnassianism is denoted, as well as Edgar Allan Poe, Oscar Wilde and Walt Whitman, with representatives such as Salvador Rueda, Francisco Villaespesa and Eduardo Marquina, as well as the initial work of Antonio and Manuel Machado, Ramón María del Valle-Inclán and Juan Ramón Jiménez.[61].
The music was linked to musical nationalism, of which several Catalan musicians were exponents, such as Felipe Pedrell, Isaac Albéniz and Enrique Granados, along with whom it is worth highlighting Manuel de Falla, Ruperto Chapí, Tomás Bretón, Joaquín Rodrigo and Joaquín Turina. Falla, one of the best modern Spanish composers, combined musical nationalism—with some influence from the Norwegian Edvard Grieg—with impressionism, which he encountered during a stay in France.[62].
General characteristics
Modernism is not a univocal concept. Specialists do not agree on what the common link of the so-called modernist artists is: it could be a style, or an attitude, or perhaps an era. The problem of ascribing modernist art as a style is that of bringing together works by very different artists, sometimes even opposing ones, although a certain homogeneity is perceived in the desire for renewal, in the concept of a "modern" art that overcomes tradition. That is why we speak of "attitude", the will to overcome the norms of the past and enter modernity. Finally, there is a feeling of time, of transition between two centuries that must entail an evolution of art, without breaking with the art of the past, but creating something new, a new art at the service of a new society.[64].
The term "modernism" (in Catalan: modernisme) comes from the word "modern", from the Latin modernus ("recently", in reference to the present time and as a contrast to the past, the "old").[65] The demand for the present also implies the future to come and is associated with concepts such as the "new" or the "young", as well as, in a broader and almost metaphorical sense, "freedom".[66] The first time the concept of "modernist" arose was in the magazine L'Avenç in January 1884, in an article by Ramón D. Perés, in which he stated that "L'Avenç defends (and will always try to carry out) the cultivation in our country of essentially modernist literature, science and art [underlined in the original], the only means that, in conscience, it believes can make us cared for and let us live a splendid life. "[67] It should be noted that the term modernism in relation to Catalan art refers only to the artistic production and cultural environment of the Principality in these years and cannot be extrapolated to other periods or regions. Thus, it should not be confused with other "modernisms": Spanish literary modernism "Modernism (literature in Spanish)") which, although almost contemporary, is based on technical and stylistic bases and principles that are well differentiated from Catalan modernism; theological modernism, a doctrine that advocated the integration of religion with modern science and philosophy; or the English term modernism "Modernism (philosophical and cultural movement)"), alluding to a philosophical and cultural trend that advocates the progress of art and culture in accordance with the new industrial era.[68].
It is difficult to establish precise dates to chronologically frame this movement. Some experts place its starting point at the Barcelona Universal Exhibition "Exposition Universal de Barcelona (1888)") of 1888,[69] others in the year of the beginning of the Modernist Festivals sponsored by Santiago Rusiñol in Sitges (1892).[70] As for its end, the Tragic Week "Semana Trágica (Spain)") of 1909 is usually established as a turning point, or or the appearance of Noucentisme - the style inherited from modernism - in 1911. According to Josep Francesc Ràfols, Catalan modernism would be situated between the exhibition of Ramón Casas, Santiago Rusiñol and Enric Clarasó held in 1890 and the death of Isidro Nonell in 1911, in the artistic field; from the Liceo bomb (1893) to the Tragic Week (1909) in the political sphere; and between the Universal Exhibition of 1888 and the founding of the Institute of Catalan Studies in 1907, at a social level.[71] Even so, some experts such as Mireia Freixa speak of a "protomodernism" that goes back to 1876 - coinciding with the founding of the Barcelona School of Architecture - or of a duration of modernism until 1917, coexisting with the first Noucentisme, although This would be more evident in the field of architecture, while the plastic arts and literature would have already been surpassed in 1905.[72] On the other hand, in the field of architecture, Pedro Navascués speaks of a "pre-modernism" for works prior to 1900, while he places between 1900 and 1914 the most decisive period of modernist architecture in Catalonia, which would ultimately last until the years 1920.[73] Juan Bassegoda also speaks of a pre-modernism, while he places the fullness of modernism between 1893 and 1910, which would be followed by a period of progressive abandonment of the style - he speaks of a second and even a third modernism (or "mannerist" phase).[74] For his part, Alexandre Cirici places the birth of modernism between 1880 and 1885, the years in which they were built five emblematic buildings: the Vicens house by Antoni Gaudí, the Editorial Montaner y Simón by Lluís Domènech i Montaner, the Academy of Sciences by José Doménech Estapá, the Francesc Vidal Art Industries by José Vilaseca and the Víctor Balaguer Library Museum by Jeroni Granell i Mundet (in Villanueva i Geltrú).[75] Oriol Bohigas places the end of modernist architecture in 1926, date of Gaudí's death.[76] Finally, George Collins places it between 1870 and 1930, although within a broader framework of what he calls Catalan Movement.[76] However, already in 1912 Lluís Masriera, in his entrance speech to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Jorge, said that "modern art, which had been baptized with the name of Modernism is in full decline or, as it is commonly said, it has gone out of fashion.
Catalan modernism was a heterogeneous movement, with a desire for innovation and original creation, which sought to bring together all the arts in an instrument at the service of a new, modern and cosmopolitan society, linked to the new European currents.[70] Starting from the cultural renaissance initiated by the Renaixença, they sought to create a national style, but modern, avant-garde, with a spirit of progress and positivist optimism.[78] Thus, the vindication of its own identity will cause Catalan modernism to incorporate into its artistic heritage styles from the past such as Gothic and Baroque, rejected, however, by European Art Nouveau in its desire to leave the past behind. In 1902, the critic Raimon Casellas still defended Gothic as the main reference of Catalan architecture in the magazine *Hispania "Hispania (Barcelona)").[79].
It could be said that the common link within Catalan modernism is the regenerative desire and the cosmopolitan vision of art and culture, but beyond this there is no stylistic unity, but within the modernist movement diverse languages are perceived, without regulations, without homogeneity, simply describing as modernist the work developed by the artists, musicians and writers who work in Catalonia during the transition of the centuries -. In any case, the starting point is the desire for regeneration, modernization, and internationalization of Catalan art and culture, in opposition to previous styles such as naturalism "Naturalism (art)") and academic art - or such as costumbrismo and anecdotism within the artistic panorama of the rest of Spain -, while revaluing the past considered most splendid by Catalan historiography, that corresponding to the Middle Ages. Therefore, in contrast to the international Art Nouveau, which rejected historicism, Catalan modernism combines modernity with the evocation of the past, always in neomedievalist lines.[72] The creation of a style considered national, which based on tradition had adopted the modern forms developed in Europe, is captured in these words by Josep Puig i Cadafalch expressed in 1902: «we have together achieved a modern art, from our traditional art, adorning it with beautiful new materials, adapting the national spirit to the needs of the day.
The main promoter of this movement, especially in the architectural field, was the bourgeoisie, a group of businessmen, bankers, manufacturers, investors and nobles of a new kind - as well as the indianos, the men who had become rich in America and who had transferred their fortune back to Catalonia - who promoted the new style as a hallmark. The majority of patrons of modernist artists came from this social stratum, supported by the economic boom that was experienced in those years. Among these bourgeois, the custom arose of building houses in the new Barcelona Eixample, which competed for their design and ostentation, with which they demonstrated their distinction.[81] Thus, a patronage arose that was decisive for the building work in the city, such as that exercised by Count Eusebio Güell towards Gaudí, or the businessman Antonio López y López (Marquis of Comillas), the bookseller José María Bocabella, the industrialist Josep Batlló, the businessman Pedro Milá, the textile manufacturer Avelino Trinxet Pujol, the baron Manuel de Quadras, the textile industrialist Josep Freixa, the chocolate industrialist Antoni Amatller, the pharmaceutical industrialist Salvador Andreu, the publisher Ramón de Montaner Vila, the wine businessman Manuel Raventós (from the Codorníu cava), the banker Ruperto Garriga-Nogués, the doctor Alberto He read Morera and a long etcetera.[82].
One of the greatest promoters and theorists of Catalan modernism was Santiago Rusiñol, promoter of the Modernist Festivals that were held annually in Sitges, attended by writers and artists with similar cultural and aesthetic interests.[70] Painter and writer, Rusiñol was one of the main promoters of the movement, which he intended not only to promote among the most academic sectors, but also among the popular classes, to make it the main reference for Catalan culture.[83] The first Modernist Festival was held in August 1892, on the occasion of an exhibition featuring works by Rusiñol, Ramón Casas, Eliseo Meifrén, Joaquim de Miró, Arcadio Mas and Juan Roig y Soler. The second occurred in September of the following year, with a concert by Enric Morera and the premiere at the Prado Theater of the opera La intrusa, a work by Maurice Maeterlinck translated into Catalan by Pompeu Fabra. The third took place in November 1894, with several events, among which the highlight was a procession held between the Sitges railway station and the Cau Ferrat—Rusiñol's house—with two works by El Greco acquired by Rusiñol in Paris: The Tears of Saint Peter "The Tears of Saint Peter (El Greco and his workshop)") and Saint Magdalena Penitente "Magdalena Penitente (El Greco, Sitges)"). On this occasion, Rusiñol declaimed a speech in which he defended a "modernism without scholastic dogmas or doctrinaireism, neither rules nor exceptions, neither regulations nor statutes, nor imperative mandates." The fourth occurred in February 1897, with the premiere of the opera La fada by Enric Morera at the Prado Theater. The fifth and last occurred in 1899, with the presentation of several plays by Ignasi Iglesias (Lladres and La Reina del Cor) and a text by Rusiñol himself, L'alegria que passa, as well as a piano concert by Joaquín Nin.[84].
On the other hand, the café-restaurant Els Quatre Gats could be considered one of the nerve centers of modernism, a meeting place for a good part of the modernist group, located in the Casa Martí, a neo-Gothic building designed by Josep Puig i Cadafalch, on Montsió street, in the Gothic quarter of Barcelona. It was founded in 1897 by Ramón Casas, Santiago Rusiñol, Miquel Utrillo and Pere Romeu—who ran the business—and lasted until 1903, the year it closed its doors. Here a gathering was formed, attended by artists and writers such as Isidro Nonell, Joaquín Mir, Ramón Pichot, Ricard Canals, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa, Jaime Sabartés, Ricardo Opisso, Joaquín Torres García, Pompeyo Gener, Joan Maragall, Amadeo Vives, Isaac Albéniz, Pablo Gargallo and Manolo Hugué, as well as a young Pablo Picasso, settled in the City. Condal in 1895. In addition to these gatherings, concerts, exhibitions, poetry recitals, puppet performances and shadow plays were held at the venue.[85] On the other hand, a magazine titled Els Quatre Gats, directed by Pere Romeu, was published, which came out between February and May 1899, with a total of fifteen issues.[86].
Another driving center of the movement was the Círculo Artístico de San Lucas, founded in 1893.[87] Linked largely to Catholicism, its greatest theorist was José Torras y Bages, bishop of Vic and representative figure of conservative Catalanism, within which Antoni Gaudí, a good friend of Torras, also participated. The Circle opposed the values of the bourgeoisie, but also bohemia, materialism as well as aestheticism and instead defended spirituality and tradition, unionism and artisanal work, with the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, the Nazarenes "Nazarenes (art)") and Arts and Crafts.[88].
On the other hand, the magazine L'Avenç was the spokesperson for the movement, published between 1881-1884 and 1889-1893. Founded by Jaume Massó, it followed a modern, progressive and Catalan line, with the desire to homologate and standardize the Catalan language, which they wanted to strip of archaizing elements. Within this magazine, the name "modernism" was forged, initially applied to the renewing attitude of the Catalan intellectual elite and which, shortly, would go from being a generic word to a specific one, which would already designate the new style developed in the Principality. This change, according to Francesc Fontbona, would occur at the time when Catalan modernism connected with symbolism, the new European style at the end of the century, in which art is immersed in spirituality, in aestheticism, in what could be defined as a "religion of art." The artist becomes the priest of this new religion, which worships beauty and refinement, as opposed to the materialism of the industrial age. Within the magazine, one of its greatest theorists was Raimon Casellas.[89] Another magazine that served as a disseminator of the new art was Pèl & Ploma, published between 1899 and 1903, years in which they published about one hundred issues. It was financed by Ramón Casas and its main editor was Miquel Utrillo. This was followed by Forma, between 1904 and 1908, also directed by Utrillo.[90] In addition to Casellas and Utrillo, other art critics of the modernist era were: Alfredo Opisso, Manuel Rodríguez Codolá, Bonaventura Bassegoda i Amigó, Francesc Casanovas, Juan Brull, José María Jordá, Sebastià Junyent, Frederic Pujulà, Miguel Sarmiento and Eugenio d'Ors.[91].
In terms of teaching, the greatest driving center of modernist art was the Escuela de la Lonja, sponsored by the Board of Trade of Barcelona.[92] Regarding the exhibition of works, it is worth highlighting the Sala Parés, founded in 1840 by Joan Baptista Parés and which soon became the most active art gallery in the Principality.[93] In fact, one of the starting points of the new movement, in addition to the Universal Exhibition of 1888, was the exhibition held in 1890 in the Sala Parés by Ramón Casas, Santiago Rusiñol and Enric Clarasó. All of these artists had spent time in Paris and had been infected by its bohemian atmosphere, as well as the work of artists such as Gustave Moreau or Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, as well as English Pre-Raphaeliteism or even Japanese woodcut. The exhibition represented a strong upheaval within the Catalan artistic scene due to the modernity and expressiveness of the works, which offered a nuanced vision of reality, subjective and aestheticized, interpreted by the artist according to his interiority with expression of feeling, a view far removed from the naturalism prevailing until then.[94].
Another driving force behind the new style were the official exhibitions: in 1890, the Commission for the Conservation of Park Buildings and the Creation and Promotion of Municipal Museums was created by the Barcelona City Council, with the aim of preserving the infrastructure created for the Universal Exhibition of 1888. One of the initiatives of said commission was the holding of artistic exhibitions in order to acquire works for the city's museums. Thus, in 1891 the I General Exhibition of Fine Arts was held, with sections on architecture, sculpture, painting, drawing and graphic arts. In the Second Exhibition (1894) sections of engraving, scenography and decorative painting were added. At the same time, in 1892 the First National Exhibition of Artistic Industries was held, with sections on metal, ceramics and glass, cabinetmaking and fabrics. In 1896 the two merged and the Third Exhibition of Fine Arts and Artistic Industries was held, a formula that was consolidated in the following competitions: the IV in 1898, the V in 1907 - henceforth called the International Exhibition - and the VI in 1911.[95].
It is worth noting the importance that the island of Mallorca had within Catalan modernism, especially for landscape painters. The Balearic island combined a still pure landscape with all the comforts of progress in terms of accommodation and transportation. For the Catalans it was a usual place of rest and escape from the urban world. Thus, artists such as Santiago Rusiñol, Eliseo Meifrén, Joaquín Mir, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa, Alexandre de Riquer, Sebastià Junyer, Mariano Pidelaserra, Eveli Torent and Félix Mestres spent long stays on the island. At the same time, the Mallorcan media - such as the newspaper La Almudaina - echoed the artistic developments of the Principality, which also had an impact on Mallorcan artists.[96].
Noucentisme replaced modernism around 1910, a classicist and Mediterranean movement promoted by the writer Eugenio d'Ors, opposed to everything he considered the ornamental excesses of modernism, against what defended the purity of classical lines, stripped of subterfuges, simple and sober lines. Some modernist artists, especially the younger ones, joined the new movement, such as Isidro Nonell, Joaquín Mir, Ricard Canals, Pablo Gargallo or Pablo Picasso; or, among the architects, Enric Sagnier, Josep Maria Pericas, Arnau Calvet, Ignasi Mas, Josep Domènech i Mansana, as well as some disciples of Gaudí, such as Juan Rubió or Cèsar Martinell.[97] The Noucentistas were so furiously opposed to the modernists that in some cases they even destroyed their works, such as the sculptures by Eusebi Arnau that decorated the ground floor of the house. Lleó Morera - the work of Lluís Domènech i Montaner -, removed in the reform directed by Raimundo Durán Reynals in 1943, which were destroyed with hammer blows.[98] In the 1920s some architects even requested the demolition of the Palace of Catalan Music.[99] A good example are also the modernist shops: in their day, shops and houses were created with equal profusion in the new style - both bars and restaurants as well as shops, pharmacies, bakeries and all types of establishments - but most have disappeared over time: in the 1960s there were about eight hundred - according to an estimate by architect David Mackay - until they are currently reduced to about fifty. Among those that have disappeared, some are as emblematic as the Bar Torino, designed by Gaudí together with Pedro Falqués and Josep Puig i Cadafalch.[100].
The fall from grace of modernism lasted several decades, until in the 1960s it was vindicated by a new generation of architects, critics and experts, such as Oriol Bohigas —author in 1968 of the work Modernist Architecture—, who saw in it a genuinely Catalan movement with undeniable virtues, both artistic and theoretical.[101] In fact, years and even decades before, some voices had already emerged in defense of modernism. Catalan, perhaps the first that of Salvador Dalí, author in 1932 of an article in the magazine Minotaure entitled De la Beauté térrifiant et edible de l'Arquitecture Nouveau Style. In 1936, Nikolaus Pevsner briefly cited Gaudí in his work Pioneers of modern design, from William Morris to Walter Gropius, in whose second edition, already in 1957, he regretted not having treated him more extensively, since he considered him "the most significant architect of Art Nouveau." Later, works such as Modernism and modernists, by Josep Francesc Ràfols (1949); Catalan modernist art, by Alexandre Cirici (1951); Art Nouveau, by Stephan Tschudi-Madsen (1956); Architecture, centuries and, by Henry-Russell Hitchcock (1958); Art Nouveau-Jugendstil, by Robert Schutzler (1962); The first Catalan modernism and its ideological foundations, by Eduardo Valentí (1973); Aspects of modernism, by Joan Lluís Marfany (1975); and The crisis of artistic modernism, by Francesc Fontbona (1975), to name a few—apart from the already mentioned Bohigas—[102].
To the same extent, various exhibitions that took place since the 1960s revalued the movement, such as Art Nouveau-Art and Design at the Turn of the Century, held in 1960 at the MoMA in New York; Sumptuary arts in Barcelona modernism, in the Palacio de la Virreina in Barcelona (1964); and Modernism in Spain, in the Casón del Buen Retiro in Madrid (1969).[103].
Architecture
Contenido
La arquitectura modernista se desarrolló en diversas fases: el primer modernismo, desarrollado en los años 1890, era todavía un estilo no especialmente definido, cuyo principal componente era un goticismo abarrocado desligado ya del historicismo, con pervivencia de ciertos rasgos clasicistas y medievalistas, practicado principalmente por Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Josep Puig i Cadafalch y Antoni Maria Gallissà.[104] En estos primeros años había un cierto sentimiento de indefinición, como se muestra en la obra Arquitectura moderna de Barcelona (1897), de Francesc Rogent, donde defiende la utilización del «estilo neogreco» para edificios públicos, «neogótico» para edificios particulares y «neorrománico» para iglesias.[105] Al mismo tiempo, se seguía practicando una arquitectura academicista ajena a las innovaciones modernistas, como se ve en la obra de arquitectos como Salvador Viñals, Cayetano Buigas, Joan Baptista Pons i Trabal o Francisco de Paula del Villar y Carmona.[106].
Con el cambio de siglo, el modernismo evolucionó hacia un cierto formalismo estilístico de influencia secesionista, practicado por una segunda generación de arquitectos como Josep Maria Jujol, Manuel Raspall, Josep Maria Pericas, Eduard Maria Balcells, Salvador Valeri, Alexandre Soler, Antoni de Falguera, Bernardí Martorell y otros.[107] Estos arquitectos planteaban la arquitectura como soporte de una exultante ornamentación, entrando en una fase manierista del modernismo.[108] Por otro lado, continuaron las tendencias neogóticas y del eclecticismo clasicista, practicadas principalmente por Enric Sagnier, José Doménech Estapá, Manuel Comas i Thos, Augusto Font Carreras o Joan Josep Hervàs.[109] Según Juan Bassegoda, esta fase manierista tuvo tres corrientes principales: la vinculada a la Escuela de Arquitectura de Barcelona, es decir, los discípulos de Domènech, Vilaseca, Font Carreras y Gallissà; los discípulos de Gaudí; y los influidos por la arquitectura europea, principalmente francesa, inglesa y austríaca. Pese a todo, no se trataría de líneas rígidas y alguno de ellos se podría encontrar en varias corrientes a la vez.[110].
El epicentro de la arquitectura modernista catalana se produjo en Barcelona y algunas ciudades del entorno, en menor medida en las otras provincias catalanas. Entre otras razones, conviene recordar la presencia en esta ciudad de la Escuela de Arquitectura, donde se formaron la mayoría de arquitectos modernistas.[111] Esta institución supuso la instauración en la Ciudad Condal de una «escuela» —en su sentido artístico— con unos parámetros comunes a toda una serie de arquitectos, que vino a sustituir a una generación anterior que debía contentarse con el título de maestro de obras o bien formarse en arquitectura en Madrid.[112] Por otro lado, un factor determinante del desarrollo del nuevo estilo fue el Ensanche de Barcelona, trazado por Ildefonso Cerdá en 1859, que favoreció enormemente la labor edilicia de la ciudad, al facilitar unos terrenos donde construir desde cero.[113] Pese a todo, así como los diversos modernismos regionales surgidos en España fueron esencialmente inconexos entre sí, en el seno del modernismo catalán es difícil encontrar un nexo común a todos los arquitectos, que mayormente desarrollaron un estilo propio y personal.[nota 4].
Las raíces del modernismo arquitectónico se encuentran en el Romanticismo, ya que, más allá de su estructura funcional, la relevancia otorgada al diseño y la ornamentación, el carácter suntuoso de su decoración y la consideración de obra de arte total se enmarcan en las corrientes románticas que surgieron a comienzos del siglo , alejadas del academicismo clasicista o del formalismo ecléctico.[114] Así, en el modernismo influyeron poderosamente movimientos como el neogótico —especialmente gracias a la aportación teórica de Viollet-le-Duc—, así como el exotismo, la inspiración en culturas lejanas, especialmente de Oriente, con preferencia en España, dado su pasado andalusí, del neomudéjar.[115].
Cabe señalar que la arquitectura modernista no comportó nada nuevo a nivel estructural, ninguna solución constructiva original, de hecho sus plantas y secciones son indistinguibles de cualquier edificio anterior. Su novedad revistió en el exterior, la fachada, así como en la decoración interior, en el uso de las artes aplicadas para elaborar un producto unitario, una obra de arte total. En ese terreno, su principal fuente de inspiración fue la naturaleza, aunque una naturaleza idealizada y magnificada.[116].
La arquitectura modernista catalana es difícilmente equiparable a la europea —ya sea francobelga o austríaca—, ya que no presenta rasgos estilísticos comunes y es esencialmente una aportación original. De ello eran conscientes los propios arquitectos, como se denota en estas palabras de Josep Puig i Cadafalch: «entre todos hemos construido un arte moderno, a partir de nuestro arte tradicional, adornándolo con bellas materias nuevas, adaptando el espíritu nacional a las necesidades del día».[117].
En 1997 se creó la Ruta del Modernismo en Barcelona, gracias a una iniciativa del Ayuntamiento de esta ciudad, que incluye los edificios más emblemáticos construidos en este estilo, en total unas 120 obras.[118] Para señalizar la ruta, se colocaron en el pavimento en varios puntos de la ciudad unas baldosas de color rojo con la flor de Barcelona, un diseño de baldosa de Josep Puig i Cadafalch para la casa Amatller que posteriormente fue utilizado en numerosas calles de la ciudad y se ha convertido en un símbolo de la Ciudad Condal.[119].
Premodernism
Some architects evolved from historicism to modernism, with varying degrees of assimilation of the new style, although in general terms a certain continuity with previous forms continued to be evident in their works. As has been seen, the new style had its raison d'être in decoration, while it did not contribute anything new at a structural level, which is why many architects of the generation before the modernist were able to venture into the new aesthetic without excessively abandoning their construction method already consolidated over the years.[120] In fact, numerous architects followed a more personal than stylistic trajectory, which is why it is difficult to give the label of modernist to this or that architect and, often, it is done simply because they coincide in time. and place. Gaudí, for example, began with a certain historicism to evolve to a particular and unique style, a style inspired by nature—organicist therefore—hardly comparable to any other architect.[121] Another case is José Doménech Estapá, an architect with a classical and solemn line who was even quite bellicose against modernism, but whose work falls within this period.[122].
At the time of the gestation of modernism, various currents were appreciated: one led by José Vilaseca, with the influence of German architecture, with more sober and regular lines, in whose wake one could place Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Josep Font i Gumà and Antoni Maria Gallissà; another starring Joan Martorell, framed in a neo-Gothic with Violletian roots for religious works and in a French-influenced classicism for civil works, which Gaudí, Cristóbal Cascante and Camilo Oliveras would follow; Pia Batlló house (1891-1896), Enric Batlló house (1892-1896), Àngel Batlló house (1893-1896), Cabot houses (1901-1905), Dolors Calm house (1903) and Comas d'Argemir house (1903-1904), in Barcelona. He was the author of the Arc de Triomphe of Barcelona, built for the Universal Exhibition of 1888.[125] Joan Martorell was a historicist architect, with a preference for medievalism, who nevertheless introduced modernist decoration in some of his works. Among his achievements, the Salesas church "Church and convent of the Salesas (Barcelona)") (1885), the Mercantile Credit Society (1896-1900) and the Güell palace in Pedralbes in Barcelona stand out, as well as the Sobrellano palace in Comillas (Cantabria) "Comillas (Cantabria)"). He was Gaudí's mentor, whom he recommended for the Sagrada Familia temple.[126] Augusto Font Carreras was a disciple of Elías Rogent and developed an eclectic style inspired by neo-Gothic and neo-Arabic; Among his works, the following stand out: the Les Heures palace (1894-1898), the Las Arenas bullring (1902), the headquarters of the Barcelona Savings Bank in the Plaza de San Jaime (1903) and the Casa de la Caridad church (1912).[127].
It is also worth mentioning other architects who coincided in their middle or final stages with the emergence of modernism: José Doménech Estapá captured in his works a premodernism of a personal, eclectic, functional and grandiloquent nature.[128] He was the author of the Barcelona Model Prison (with Salvador Viñals, 1887-1904), the Montaner Palace (current Government Delegation in Catalonia, 1889-1893, completed by Antoni Maria Gallissà and Lluís Domènech i Montaner), the Catalana de Gas building (1895-1896), the Santa Lucía Asylum (later Science Museum, 1904-1909), the Fabra Observatory (1904-1906), the Clinical Hospital (1904), the church-convent of Our Lady del Carmen (1909-1921) and the Magoria Station (1912).[129] Pedro Falqués was municipal architect of Barcelona, for which he participated in numerous urban improvements in the city; He was the author of the Clot market (1889), the Canaletas fountain (1892), the Ensanche Mayor's Office (1893), the Catalan Electricity Central (1896-1897), the benches-lampposts on Paseo de Gracia (1900), the Laribal house (1902), the Bonaventura Ferrer house (1905-1906) and the Sants market (1913).[130] Antonio Rovira y Trías was the municipal architect of Barcelona, winner of the competition called by the City Council for the new expansion of the city, although finally the Ministry of Public Works imposed Ildefonso Cerdá's project. For the Universal Exhibition of 1888 he built the Martorell Museum. He was the author of several municipal markets, such as Hostafrancs (1888), where he showed an incipient modernism.[131] Emilio Sala Cortés was equally historicist with the introduction of some modernist ornamental elements, especially in the multiple summer villas he built for the bourgeoisie. His works include: the Emilia Carles house in Barcelona (1892), the Tolrà palace in Castellar del Vallés (1890), the Rocafort house in La Garriga (1910) and the Ribas Schools in Rubí (1916). He was also the author of the Paseo de Gracia building No. 43, which was later renovated by Gaudí and converted into the Casa Batlló.[132] Cayetano Buigas was chief architect of the Universal Exhibition of 1888, for which he also designed the Columbus Monument "Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)"), with sculpture by Rafael Atché. It was framed in eclecticism, with some modernist influence, as seen in the Vichy Catalán Spa, in Caldas de Malavella (1898-1904). In Sitges he was the author of the Municipal Market (1889) and the Bonaventura Blai house (1900).[133].
Lluís Domènech i Montaner
Lluís Domènech i Montaner created a mixture of constructive rationalism and fabulous decoration with the influence of Spanish-Islamic architecture.[134] He was the creator of what he called "national architecture",[note 5] an eclectic style based on new techniques and materials, with a modern and international desire. To do this, he was inspired by architects such as Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Gottfried Semper.[136] In his work he sought constructive and aesthetic unity, with clear and ordered approaches, through a rational system that assumed decorativeness as an essential part of the work.[137] He was a professor at the Barcelona School of Architecture since its foundation in 1875 and, from 1900 to 1920, its director. He was also president of the Ateneo Barcelonés, journalist - director of the newspaper El Poble Català -, heraldist and politician, being president of the Lliga de Catalunya and the Catalan Union, as well as a deputy in Madrid in 1904.[135].
His most relevant works were the Hospital de la Santa Cruz y San Pablo (1902-1913, completed by his son Pere Domènech i Roura) and the Palace of Catalan Music (1905-1908), both declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 1997. The first is a vast hospital complex inherited from the old Hospital de la Santa Cruz, which occupies nine blocks of Ensanche, with a set of forty-six pavilions. arranged in parallel and diagonal according to the distribution in the room to have the optimal solar orientation. They are autonomous pavilions separated by interstitial spaces, although connected by underground galleries, of which the administration pavilion, the assembly hall, the library, the secretariat, the church and the convalescent room stand out.[138] In this work, applied arts take on special relevance, such as sculpture—with works by Eusebi Arnau and Pablo Gargallo—, mosaic, tiles and stained glass.[139].
The Palace of Catalan Music is a building articulated around the large central hall, oval in shape and with capacity for two thousand spectators. Inside it has three sections, the entrance, the auditorium and the stage, with a lavish decoration with ceramic coverings and a large central skylight that covers the room, made of colored glass, in addition to various sculptures by Eusebi Arnau and Pablo Gargallo. The main façade covers the chamfer of Amadeu Vives and Sant Pere més Alt streets, with large access arches and a balcony that surrounds the entire façade, with columns covered in ceramic and topped by a mosaic dome, where the sculptural group of The Popular Song, by Miguel Blay, stands out.[140].
Also worth highlighting is the Lleó Morera house (1905), a renovation of a building built in 1864, whose location on a chamfer determined the prominence of the corner, where the main stand is located and is finished off vertically with a small temple; Each floor has a different design, where the ornamental work stands out - with sculptures by Eusebi Arnau -, partially mutilated in a renovation of the ground floor carried out in 1943.[141] The interior was profusely decorated with sculptures by Eusebi Arnau, stained glass windows by Antoni Rigalt, furniture by Gaspar Homar and other elements.[142].
Antoni Gaudi
One of the greatest representatives of Catalan modernism was Antoni Gaudí, an architect with an innate sense of geometry and volume, as well as a great imaginative capacity that allowed him to mentally project most of his works before transferring them to plans. Endowed with a strong intuition and creative capacity, Gaudí conceived his buildings in a global way, taking into account both structural solutions and functional and decorative ones, also integrating artisanal work, and introduced new techniques in the treatment of materials, such as his famous trencadís, made with pieces of waste ceramics. After beginnings influenced by neo-Gothic art, as well as certain orientalizing tendencies, Gaudí led to modernism in its most effervescent period, although he went beyond orthodox modernism, creating a personal style based on the observation of nature, the fruit of which was his use of regulated geometric shapes, such as the hyperbolic paraboloid, the hyperboloid, the helicoid "Helix (geometry)") and the conoid "Cone". (geometry)").[148].
His first achievements, both during his student period and the first executed upon obtaining his degree, stand out for the great precision of the details, the use of superior geometry and the preponderance of mechanical considerations in the calculation of structures.[149] From this period, the streetlights of the Plaza Real "Farolas de la Plaza Real (Barcelona)") (1878) and the Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense (1878-1882) stand out, as well as the beginning of the works of what would be his magnum opus, the Expiatory Temple of the Sagrada Familia (1883).[150].
Later he went through an orientalist stage, with a series of works with a marked oriental taste, inspired by the art of the Near and Far East, as well as by Hispanic Islamic art, mainly Mudejar and Nasrid. He used ceramic tile decoration with great profusion, as well as the mitral arches "Arco (construction)"), exposed brick cartouches and finials in the shape of a temple or dome. the Güell pavilions (1884-1887), the Güell palace (1886-1888) and the pavilion of the Transatlantic Company for the Universal Exhibition of 1888. The house for the stockbroker Manuel Vicens was his first important work, a house with three facades and a large garden, with a monumental brick fountain and a fence wall with a cast iron fence decorated with palmetto leaves, one of his most iconic; The house is finished with chimneys and towers in the form of temples.[152] The Güell Palace was the first important commission of its patron, Eusebio Güell, for whom he designed a house with a monumental entrance with magnificent doors with parabolic arches and openwork wrought iron bars; Inside, the hall stands out, which has a height of three floors and forms the central core of the building, with a roof with a double dome with a paraboloid profile on the inside and a conical profile on the outside.[153].
He then went through a neo-Gothic period, in which he was inspired above all by medieval Gothic art, which he assumed freely, personally, trying to improve its structural solutions; In his works he eliminates the need for buttresses by using ruled surfaces and eliminates crests and excessive openwork. Garraf "Garraf (Sitges)") (1895-1897) and the Bellesguard tower (1900-1909). The latter was built on the ruins of an old summer palace of King Martin I the Human, with a building with a square plan with the vertices oriented to the four cardinal points, topped by a truncated conical tower crowned with the four-armed cross.[155].
Josep Puig i Cadafalch
Josep Puig i Cadafalch adapted modernism to certain influences of Nordic and Flemish Gothic, as well as elements of traditional rural Catalan architecture, with a strong presence of applied arts and stuccos.[192] A disciple of Domènech i Montaner, he was an architect, archaeologist, historian, professor and politician.[193] He was president of the Commonwealth of Catalonia (1917-1924), a position from which which promoted the creation of various professional schools (Nursing, Commerce, Textile Industries), scientific entities (Institute of Catalan Studies) and cultural (National Museum of Art of Catalonia, Library of Catalonia).[194].
It went through various stages: in the 1890s, a certain flamboyant Germanism, which Alexandre Cirici called the "pink era" (Martí house or Els Quatre Gats, 1895-1896; Amatller house, 1898-1900; Macaya house, 1899-1901; Baron de Quadras palace, 1899-1906; Terrades or les Punxes house, 1903-1905); in the 1900s a Mediterranean style or "white era" (Trinxet house, 1902-1904; Can Serra, headquarters of the Barcelona Provincial Council, 1903-1908; Sastre Marquès house, 1905; Muntadas house, 1910; Pere Company house, 1911); and, from the 1910s, a classicism with a secessionist influence that would lead to Noucentisme, its "yellow age" (Muley-Afid house, 1911-1914; Casaramona factory, current Caixa Fòrum, 1915-1939; Rosa Alemany house, 1928-1930), with the influence of the Chicago School "Chicago School (architecture)") (Pich i Pon house, 1919-1921) and with a drift towards a certain monumentalist baroque style (palaces of Alfonso XIII and Victoria Eugenia, 1923).[195].
Among these achievements it is worth highlighting the Amatller house and the Terrades house. The first presents a neo-Gothic-looking façade, with three different parts: a stone plinth with two doors on the left side, creating an asymmetric effect; a central body with sgraffito walls and ornamentation of floral motifs, with an upper gallery reminiscent of that of the chapel of San Jorge in the Palace of the Generalitat; and a stepped gable-shaped finish made of red and gold ceramic, with possible influence from the traditional architecture of the Netherlands.[196] The Terrades house occupies an entire block of Ensanche, with an irregular layout: it presents six facades inspired by Nordic Gothic architecture and Spanish plateresque, topped by gables, some truncated by ceramic soffits with Pre-Raphaelite style images, and flanked by six circular towers crowned with conical spiers ending in a needle, which give the building its nickname; It is built in exposed work, with sculptural ornamentation of stone and glazed ceramic, and wrought iron elements.[197].
In Mataró, his hometown, he was the author of the Parera house (1894), the Beneficencia house (1894), the Coll i Regàs house (1898) and the Puig i Cadafalch house (1897-1905).[198] In Argentona, a nearby town, he was the architect of the Garí house (1898), a building halfway between a farmhouse and a palace, medievalist, with profuse interior and exterior decoration, as denoted in the entrance porch-stand.[199] Between 1901 and 1904 he built the Cavas Codorniu buildings in San Sadurní de Noya, which denote the Gaudinian influence in the use of parabolic arches.[186].
Other modernist architects
Of the plethora of modernist architects—totally or partially—we must first mention Enric Sagnier, an architect with an eclectic style who forged a personal seal of classicist lines with great success among the Catalan bourgeois class. A prolific author, he was possibly the architect with the largest number of constructions in Barcelona, with nearly three hundred documented buildings.[200] Three stages can be distinguished in his career: before 1900 he worked with an eclectic, monumental and grandiose style; From 1900 to 1910 he moved closer to modernism, which is perceived in a greater decorative sense of his work at this time, with special influence of Rococo art; and, since 1910, he remained in a classicist style of French influence, far from the fashions of the moment.[201] Among his works, the following stand out: the Palace of Justice of Barcelona (1887-1908, with José Domènech y Estapá), the Juncadella house (1888-1889), the Pascual i Pons house (1890-1891), the Jesús-María school (1892-1897), the Customs House of the Port of Barcelona (1896-1902, with Pere Garcia Fària), the Arnús or El Pinar house (1902-1904), the Garriga Nogués house (1902-1904), the Expiatory Temple of the Sacred Heart (1902-1961), the Fargas house (1904), the church of Our Lady of Pompeii "Church of Our Lady of Pompeii (Barcelona)") (1907-1910), the Ramon Mulleras house (1910-1911), the Doctor Genové house (1911), the new church of San Juan de Horta (1911-1917), the Barcelona Pension Fund Building (1914-1917), the Basilica of San José Oriol (1915-1930) and the Ribas Board of Trustees (1920-1930).[202].
Antoni Maria Gallissà, Joan Josep Hervàs, Salvador Viñals and Francisco de Paula del Villar y Carmona also moved within this line of classicist reminiscence. Gallissà was an architect closely linked to the decorative arts, as can be seen in the Llopis Bofill house (1902), with a façade with sgraffito of Islamic motifs and balconies in the form of iron and glass tribunes.[203] Hervàs' main work was the Pérez Samanillo house, current Equestrian Circle (1910-1911), a single-family house with the appearance of a château French, which received the City Council's award for the best work of 1910.[204] Viñals practiced classicist architecture with modernist ornamentation, as evidenced in the Juncosa house (1907-1909). He built several factories and theaters, such as the Novedades Theater (1890, disappeared) and collaborated with Doménech Estapá on the Model Prison (1888-1904). He was also the author of several summer villas in coastal towns, such as the Oller house in Sitges (1891).[205] Villar y Carmona was an architect for the diocese of Barcelona, a position from which he intervened in the Montserrat Monastery, where he built the façade of the church and the chapel of the Virgin.[206] In Barcelona he built the Riera house (1892), the Gas Lebon house. (1894-1896)[207] and the Climent Arola house (1900-1902).
[208] He was also in charge of the reconstruction of the church of Santa Madrona (1915) and the Hospital de Incurables (1916). He was also the author of the parish church of San Cipriano de Tiana "Tiana (Barcelona)") (1927).
Modernist centers outside Barcelona
The Catalan capital was the city that had the most works of modernist architecture—and perhaps the most emblematic—but the movement spread throughout the Principality. Important architects who worked in the capital also carried out works outside, as is the case of Gaudí in Santa Coloma de Cervelló, Garraf "Garraf (Sitges)") or La Pobla de Lillet; by Domènech i Montaner in Reus and Canet de Mar; from Puig i Cadafalch in Mataró and Argentona; by Josep Maria Jujol in Tarragona and San Juan Despí; or Juan Rubió in Colonia Güell, Reus, Ripoll and Raimat. As the work of these authors has already been analyzed, this section will address the work of other architects limited to specific territories of the four Catalan provinces.[283].
This province is the one with the most modernist works in the Catalan territory, given its proximity to the capital, which acted as a focus of irradiation. In the immediate surroundings of Barcelona you can find modernist architecture in cities such as Hospitalet de Llobregat and Badalona. In the first one are some modernist factories, such as the Tecla Sala factory, by Claudio Durán y Ventosa (1892), or the Can Vilumara factory, by Andreu Audet (1906-1907), while Ramón Puig Gairalt, municipal architect of the city, built various modernist-type chalets at the beginning of his career - although he later leaned towards Noucentisme - as well as the Botiga Nova store. (1912), the cheap houses on Rambla Just Oliveras 77-79 (1914-1915) - which denote the secessionist influence - and the Police Station (1922). (1910) crisscrossing of horizontal lines.[286][287].
Around the capital, there is a large number of modernist works on the coastal strip, in the regions of Garraf, El Maresme and Bajo Llobregat. The main city of Garraf is Villanueva i Geltrú, where Bonaventura Pollés, who was the city's municipal architect, worked, where he developed a style tending towards monumentalism, with profuse use of iron and glass, in works such as the Villa Laguarda (1912) or the chalet of Dr. Ribot (1910).[288] His successor as municipal architect was Josep Maria Miró i Guibernau, author of the Can Pahissa or Indiano house. (1916-1921).[289] Another important town is Sitges, a relevant modernist center, since Santiago Rusiñol, promoter of the Modernist Festivals that were held in that city, settled there. Josep Pujol i Brull worked here, an eclectic architect who went through various stages, from modernism to noucentisme, author of the Pere Carreras house (1906). Elías Rogent, the father of the School of Architecture and author of the University of Barcelona, was the author of Cau Ferrat, the Rusiñol residence.[292] In Bajo Llobregat we must first highlight the work of Gaudí, Berenguer and Rubió in the Colonia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló, of Josep Maria Jujol in San Juan Despí, of Marceliano Coquillat in San Justo Desvern and of Gabriel Borrell in Sant Feliu de Llobregat, as seen previously, we must mention Josep Ros i Ros, who was municipal architect of Castellbisbal, Cervelló, Corbera de Llobregat, El Papiol, Gélida, Martorell, La Palma de Cervelló, Olesa de Montserrat, Pallejá, Piera, San Andrés de la Barca, San Sadurní de Noya and Torrellas de Noya. Llobregat,[293] towns in which he left numerous works of modernist stamp, which stand out for the profusion of ceramic and stucco elements, as well as decoration of curved or rectilinear borders.[294] He was also the author of the Jacint Bosch house in Terrassa (1912) and the Cal Sabater factory in Igualada (1912-1919).[293] In the same region it is worth mentioning the Town Hall of Viladecans, by Josep Azemar (1899); the General Water Society of Barcelona in Cornellá de Llobregat, by Josep Amargós (1905-1909); and the Artisan Center of El Prat de Llobregat, by Antoni Pascual Carretero (1919).[295]
Catalan modernism outside Catalonia
Some Catalan modernist architects left notable works outside the Principality. One of the main focuses was Comillas "Comillas (Cantabria)"), in Cantabria, the birthplace of Antonio López y López, first Marquis of Comillas, father-in-law of the Catalan businessman and patron of Gaudí, Eusebio Güell. López began important construction works in his town, for which he hired Catalan architects on the recommendation of his son-in-law. The first commission, entrusted to Joan Martorell, was for a palace and a chapel-pantheon in Sobrellano (1878-1888), built in the neo-Gothic style. Gaudí, who at that time was Martorell's assistant, designed some furniture for the chapel and sculptors such as Josep Llimona and the brothers Agapito and Venancio Vallmitjana participated in the decoration. The next commission, also from Martorell, was for a Seminar (1883-1892), where Lluís Domènech i Montaner participated in the decoration. This architect was later in charge of the construction of the town's cemetery (1890) —where the sculpture The Exterminating Angel "The Exterminating Angel (Llimona)" by Josep Llimona stands out— and a Monument to the first Marquis of Comillas (1890).[345] But the main exponent of Catalan modernism in Comillas was El Capricho "El Capricho (Gaudí)") by Gaudí (1883-1885), a tower commissioned by Máximo Díaz de Quijano, brother-in-law of Antonio López. Along with the Vicens house, it was one of the first relevant works of Gaudí, who entrusted the direction of the works to Cristóbal Cascante, a fellow student. Of oriental style, it has an elongated plan, with three levels and a cylindrical tower in the shape of a Persian minaret, completely covered in ceramic.[346].
Gaudí built two other important works outside Catalonia: the Episcopal Palace of Astorga (1889-1915) and the Botines house in León "León (Spain)") (1891-1894). The first was a commission from a clergyman who was a friend of his native Reus, Juan Bautista Grau Vallespinós, who upon being appointed bishop of Astorga commissioned Gaudí to build a palace for that city, in a neo-Gothic style.[347] The Botines house is also in a neo-Gothic style, with a sculpture on the façade of Saint George and the dragon, the work of Llorenç Matamala.[348] It is worth mentioning finally another intervention by Gaudí outside of his land: the restoration of the Cathedral of Mallorca (1903-1914), commissioned by the bishop of that city, Pere Campins. Gaudí planned a series of structural and decorative actions and modernization of the building, entrusting the works to Juan Rubió, Gaudí's assistant.[349].
Thanks to his work in the restoration of the Mallorcan cathedral, Juan Rubió carried out several projects in the Balearic Islands: the façade of the parish church of San Bartolomé de Sóller (1904-1912), the monastery of the Sagrada Familia in Manacor (1906-1908), the rosary of the sanctuary of Lluch (1909-1913, with Josep Reynés), the Casasayas house in Palma de Mallorca (1910-1911), the church of Son Servera (1910), the Bank of Sóller (1910-1912), the Miquel Benimelis house in Palma (1912-1913), the monument to Jaime III in Lluchmayor (1923) and the restoration of the cathedral of Santa María de Ciudadela (1939-1941).[350] In this part of Spain it was author of the Puig pharmacy in Azoque (Zaragoza, 1908),[350] the basilica of the Sacred Heart "Basilica del Sagrado Corazón (Gijón)") in Gijón (1910-1925)[293] and the restoration of the house of Saint Ignatius of Loyola in Azpeitia (Guipúzcoa, 1920-1921).[350].
Paint
La pintura modernista recibió influencias muy variadas, especialmente las ligadas a corrientes europeas como el impresionismo, postimpresionismo y simbolismo. Esta influencia llegó especialmente gracias a las estancias en París de numerosos artistas, como Ramón Casas y Santiago Rusiñol. Considerada en aquel entonces la meca del arte, la capital francesa era el lugar donde viajaban artistas de todo el mundo para formarse y ponerse al día en las corrientes pictóricas.[365] También ejercieron una gran influencia movimientos como la Hermandad Prerrafaelita, el Arts and Crafts, los Nazarenos "Nazarenos (arte)") y los Nabis "Nabis (artistas)"), así como, en el campo de la cultura europea en general, la filosofía de Nietzsche, la música de Wagner y el teatro de Ibsen y Maeterlinck. Barcelona se convirtió en una metrópoli europea, más ligada al continente que el resto de España.[366] También ejerció un notable influjo la revalorización producida esos años de la obra de El Greco, al que admiraban artistas como Rusiñol, Mir y Gimeno, así como Regoyos y Zuloaga a nivel nacional. Del artista cretense se valoraba especialmente el colorido de sus obras y la estilización de sus figuras. Prueba de esta actitud fue la iniciativa de Rusiñol de erigir un Monumento a El Greco en Sitges, obra de Josep Reynés (1898).[365].
Por su posición cronológica, la pintura modernista fue heredera de los movimientos artísticos del siglo , al tiempo que preludiaba las nuevas vanguardias que llegarían con el siglo . Esta posición, entre el pasado y el futuro, llevó a Josep Maria Garrut a separar a los pintores modernistas entre «recreadores con proyección de pasado» y «creadores con premoniciones de futuro».[367] Así, la pintura modernista catalana es ambigua, contradictoria, en un difícil equilibrio entre la ruptura y la continuidad, entre la tradición y el progreso.[367].
En pintura, el modernismo fue un movimiento heterogéneo, que agrupó en su seno varias tendencias estilísticas: según una clasificación de Joan Ainaud de Lasarte (El Modernismo en España, 1969), el modernismo catalán podría dividirse entre modernismo simbolista, impresionista y postimpresionista.[368] En cambio, para Francesc Fontbona (La crisis del Modernismo artístico, 1975), se darían dos corrientes principales: la modernista y la posmodernista.[369] Pese a su diversidad, son perceptibles diversos rasgos comunes en la mayoría de artistas modernistas, como podrían ser el rechazo del arte académico, el culto por la belleza y una cierta actitud social, un afán regenerador de la sociedad de su momento.[370].
Uno de los puntos de partida de la pintura modernista fue la estancia en París de Ramón Casas y Santiago Rusiñol. Pertenecientes a familias acomodadas, viajaron a la capital mundial del arte en 1890, donde se adentraron en el ambiente bohemio de Montmartre. Aquí conocieron el impresionismo, del que recibieron la influencia, especialmente, de Manet y Degas, es decir, el impresionismo más de raíz académica y no tanto de inspiración individual.[371] De vuelta a Barcelona, Casas y Rusiñol capitanearon una renovación del ambiente pictórico catalán, que incluyó a diversos artistas que se movían en torno al Círculo Artístico de Barcelona. En contrapartida al espíritu bohemio y hedonista de estos pintores, surgió una corriente de signo más conservador, tanto en lo artístico —por su conservación de un cierto sello académico—, como en lo moral —por su vinculación al catolicismo—, centrada en el Círculo Artístico de San Lucas, una asociación liderada por el obispo de Vic, José Torras y Bages y, en el terreno artístico, por Josep Llimona.[372].
Premodernism: the Luminist School of Sitges
The so-called Sitges Luminist School,[373] which emerged in this town in Garraf and was active between 1878 and 1892, is usually considered "pre-modernism". Its most prominent members were Arcadio Mas, Joaquim de Miró, Joan Batlle i Amell, Antoni Almirall and Juan Roig y Soler. In some ways opposed to the Olot School, whose painters treated the landscape of the interior of Catalonia with a softer and more filtered light, the Sitges artists opted for the warm and vibrant Mediterranean light and the atmospheric effects of the Garraf coast. Heirs largely of Mariano Fortuny, the members of this school sought to faithfully reflect the luminous effects of the surrounding landscape, in harmonious compositions that combined verism and a certain poetic and idealized vision of nature, with a subtle chromaticism and a fluid brushstroke that was sometimes described as impressionist.[374].
These artists captured with precision and detail the landscape, life and customs of this coastal town, with realism, but with a certain idealized and poetic vision of the images they captured, in which the beauty of light and a subtle chromaticism of great visual freshness stand out.[375] Subsequently, most of these artists evolved in different ways: in their later production Roig y Soler had a tendency to replace the line with the stain, reloading the material composition of their works, with a freer and more dynamic invoice; Mas approached modernism - he was a close friend of Rusiñol - and combined landscaping with interior scenes, especially in churches illuminated with baroque-looking candlelight; Miró, Batlle and Almirall largely continued with the Luminist style, although in a more personal and heterogeneous way.[376].
Houses and Rusiñol
One of the leading representatives of this movement was Santiago Rusiñol, established in 1890 in Paris together with Ramón Casas, where they entered the impressionist movement, with a special influence of Manet and Degas, that is, impressionism with a more traditional basis, with long and diffuse brushstrokes compared to the short and loose brushstrokes of the most avant-garde impressionism.[377] Friend of the sculptor Enric Clarasó, they used to go out for walks to take notes on the painting. natural, which they later transferred to their works. Together they set up a workshop at 38 Muntaner Street in Barcelona, which became famous for its gatherings, attended by young artists; known as Cau Ferrat, later this name would be that of the Rusiñol house in Sitges, center of the modernist festivals.[378][note 6].
Rusiñol had trained in naturalist painting, close to the Olot School. His most fully modernist stage occurred in the 1890s. In the first years of this decade his impressionist influence was more evident, with a color of cold tones with a preponderance of gray - as Casas would also develop -, as denoted in works such as The kitchen or the laboratory of the Moulin de la Galette (1890) or Erik Satie (1891), where the influence of Whistler is evident, especially in the figures.[380] Around 1893-1894 he evolved towards a more fully symbolist style: he abandoned realism and directed his work towards a more mythical and aestheticizing tone, almost evasionist, as denoted in his decorative ceilings for the Cau Ferrat of 1896 (Painting, Poetry, Music).[381] With the beginning of the century he moved more towards landscaping, still with a certain symbolist seal, but with a greater tendency towards realism.[382] A series of successive trips to Granada were decisive for this, where he developed a more naturalistic landscaping, with concern for composition and symmetry, as well as aesthetics and chromaticism: Staircase with Generalife fountains (1900).[383].
Ramón Casas was not fully seduced by the impressionism that he encountered in Paris - although he did denote the influence of Degas and Whistler - his work is somewhat more conservative with the pictorial tradition, but he did develop a plenairism of cold tones, with a preference for grey, as noted in Plen air "Plein Air (Ramón Casas)") (1890). In the following years he combined landscaping and scenes of social life with works of certain political content, which, however, transcended mere anecdotism due to their plastic nature and the treatment of the image, articulated with spots of color, with a veristic chromaticism that dilutes the pathos of the scenes in images reduced to the capture of an image in time, as denoted in The Vile Garrote (1894) and The Load (1899).[384].
His technique stands out for the synthetic brushstroke and the somewhat blurred line, with a theme focused preferably on interiors and outdoor images, as well as popular scenes and social demands.[385] Despite everything, Casas' modernism is superficial, his style is rather realistic, as can be seen in his female portraits, which have great pictorial quality. He was also a great draftsman, highlighting his gallery of charcoal portraits of figures of his time.[386] He also stood out as a poster artist, where he demonstrated great mastery of color and composition.[387].
Impressionist modernism
This trend was based on the influence of French impressionism, although always more attenuated and with an important substratum of realism from the Spanish naturalist school, to a greater or lesser extent depending on each artist. The preferred theme in this current was the landscape, in which heirs of the Olot School are shown, with Ramón Martí Alsina and Joaquín Vayreda as main references. Thus, in the treatment of these works, light and color are more relevant than the expression of a feeling or the symbolization of some concept, as occurs in symbolist modernism. The technique is a free brushstroke, more or less thick depending on the artist, while the color is intense, but without reaching the violence that French post-impressionism was developing in those years.[388].
Casas and Rusiñol would partially enter this current, influenced by impressionism after their stay in Paris, as well as other artists among whom we should mention in the first place Eliseo Meifrén, the greatest representative of impressionist landscaping in Catalonia. His early works are still heirs of the romantic spirit, with a certain preciousness coming from genre painting, later evolving into a free impressionism, which stands out for the softness of color and atmospheric effects. His favorite subject was the Catalan coast - especially Cadaqués -, although he also painted landscapes of Europe and America.[389].
Francisco Gimeno trained in Tortosa with Manuel Marqués and expanded his studies in Madrid with Carlos de Haes, despite which he developed a personal style, based on a dense drawing with nervous lines, a brushstroke that was also dense and somewhat rough, and a coloring dominated by reddish and saffron tones, with the presence of charcoal blacks as well, all of them put at the service of a composition based on facets of light. As for the theme, a harsh, austere, somewhat sordid background is perceived, a reflection of the painter's own life, voluntarily removed from the society of his time. In addition to landscapes—especially of the Catalan and Majorcan coast—his portraits and self-portraits stand out.[390].
Oleguer Junyent made his living mainly as a set designer, a job thanks to which he traveled all over the world. During the course of these trips he took oil notes taken from nature, a rich collection of natural views that stand out for their vivid color, with precise drawing and thick brushstrokes. His easel works are, however, more discreet and somewhat decorative, perhaps due to the influence of his theatrical activity. He was also a writer and decorator, as well as an illustrator in L'Esquella de la Torratxa.[391].
Laureano Barrau studied at the Escuela de la Lonja with Antonio Caba and Claudio Lorenzale, and furthered his studies in Paris, where he was a disciple of Jean-Léon Gérôme. He spent a stay in Rome, thanks to having won the Fortuny prize. He also traveled through South America and spent several seasons in the Balearic Islands, especially Ibiza, where he settled permanently in his last years. In his work he evolved from a naturalism with romantic overtones towards a certain impressionism that gave great relevance to light and atmosphere, something close to Sorolla's luminism.[392].
San Lucas Artistic Circle
Faced with the more mundane and cosmopolitan character of impressionist modernism, a certain reaction arose around the Círculo Artístico de San Lucas, an association of artists linked to Catholicism, led by José Torras y Bages, creator of a nationalist, traditional, conservative and moralizing ideology, which permeated the works of these artists. However, despite these almost anti-modernist concepts, his work links with modernist painting due to his desire to overcome naturalistic anecdotism and his spiritualism, which connects with the symbolist current. In 1893 the first collective exhibition of the Círculo was held in the Sala Parés.[396].
One of its founders was Joan Llimona, who leaned towards a mysticism of strong religiosity, as denoted in his paintings for the dome of the dressing room of the church of the Montserrat monastery (1898) or the murals in the dining room of the Recolons house in Barcelona (1905).[381] Trained at the Escuela de la Lonja with Antonio Caba and Ramón Martí Alsina, he expanded his studies in Italy for four years, thanks to a scholarship won by his brother, the sculptor Josep Llimona. His first works were of the genre of manners, but around 1890 his painting focused on religion, with compositions that combined formal realism with the idealism of the themes, with a style sometimes compared to Millet and Puvis de Chavannes, as noted in Returning from the field (1896).[397].
Another member of the Circle, more fully symbolist, was Alexandre de Riquer, painter, engraver, decorator, illustrator and poster artist, as well as a poet and art theorist. He lived for a time in London, where he was influenced by Pre-Raphaeliteism and the Arts and Crafts movement. He especially stood out in book illustration (Crisantemes, 1899; Anyoranses, 1902) and in the design of ex-libris, a genre that he raised to high quality levels.[398] In the last stage of his life, established in Mallorca, he dedicated himself to landscaping, in a rather impressionist style.[399].
Other members of the Circle were Dionisio Baixeras and Joaquim Vancells. Baixeras, a disciple of Martí Alsina, dedicated himself to landscapes with a calm appearance.[400] Due to his technique and style, he could be defined more as a naturalist than as a modernist, although he belonged to this generation. He focused on typically Catalan rural themes: shepherds, fishermen, mountains of the Pyrenees or beaches of the Catalan coast.[401] Vancells, also a landscape painter, offered a more rural variant of the gray impressionism of Casas and Rusiñol.[400] He evolved from a highly precise technique close to the Olot School towards a more symbolist tone, in which his landscapes - especially of Montserrat and Vallés "Vallés (Catalonia)")—are tinged with fog and atmospheric effects, as well as a certain sentimentality.[402].
Enrique Galwey and Luis Graner straddled the naturalism of the Olot School and symbolism.[400] Galwey, a disciple of Vayreda, developed a melancholic landscape design, close to Barbizon's painting. His landscapes are schematic, with a large presence of clouds, dark masses, lights and backlights.[389] Graner studied in La Lonja, as well as in Madrid and Paris. Technically he was a conventional artist, who mastered light and color, while thematically he moved between anecdotism and social themes. In his last years he worked in the United States and South America, taking portraits to survive.[403].
Symbolist modernism
Symbolist modernism brought together influences coming not only from Symbolism, but from Romanticism and Pre-Raphaelism, but also from naturalism and other styles, which provided a great amalgamation and complexity that was translated in different ways in each artist. In his production an idealism is perceived that gives great relevance to iconography and that translates into the characters' expression of ideas or feelings, with a special predilection for the female figure, an idealized figure, with little recurrence to the nude "Nude (artistic genre)") - and, if necessary, unrealistic, which removes erotic connotations -, if not fully chaste, especially in painters with moralistic ideas linked to Christianity.[404] Their The main characteristics were asymmetry, two-dimensionality, the sinuous line, the taste for floral decoration, a certain medievalizing tendency and, especially with regard to symbolism, the predilection for allegory and symbolic themes.[405] The technique evolved from a weak coloring with diffuse brush strokes towards a greater chromaticism with thicker brush strokes and freedom of movement.[406].
Casas and Rusiñol partially fall within the symbolist tendency, as well as the members of the Círculo de San Lucas, as we have seen. Among the artists of this movement, Juan Brull, José María Tamburini and Sebastià Junyent also stood out. Brull studied in Barcelona with Simón Gómez and in Paris with Raphaël Collin.[407] From the beginnings of an anecdotal realist style, he evolved towards an academic symbolist idealism. In his work the representation of the female figure stands out, with girls of ethereal beauty who often take the form of fairies or nymphs, as in Calypso (1896) or Dream (1897).[381] Tamburini developed a similar aesthetic of idealized female figures, as in Harmonies of the forest (1896).[408] Initiated in academicism, in which he showed great perfection technique, later he was one of the modernist painters most akin to symbolism, especially for his themes of romantic content.[409] Junyent—brother of Oleguer, with an impressionist tendency—was a restless artist, initiated into Parisian impressionism at the same time as Casas and Rusiñol, but who developed a personal work, in which his most symbolist phase was between 1899—the year of his Chlorosis, of Whistrian influence— and 1903, the date on which he made an Annunciation that already indicated a more archaizing style. His best work in these years was Ave María (1902), which shows an idealism close to Henri Martin "Henri Martin (painter)").[410] Later he focused on social issues - especially marginal characters -, endowed with a strong melancholic vision, due to his depressive character, which led him to madness in his final stage. He was also an art critic in the magazines Joventut "Joventut (magazine)") and , as well as a poster artist, bookbinder and furniture designer.[411] He may have influenced Pablo Picasso, with whom he shared a studio in Barcelona and whom he accompanied to Paris.[412].
Postmodernism
The last pictorial trend within modernism was more heterogeneous, in a line that brought together various styles, both the previous ones and the various new trends that were emerging in Europe, especially post-impressionism. In general, they were artists of a new generation—the majority born in the 1870s—who sought to break ties with the previous one and embark on a new, more personal path. Although many of them were trained academically—especially at the Escuela de la Lonja—, they renounced their training and sought new avenues of expression. Although they were more personal artists, in general they stand out for a more urban and social theme, denouncing the miseries of their time, expressed with harshness and acrimony, with a more daring and expressive technique in lights and colors - where black takes on a strong role -, with thick brushstrokes applied in spots with a strong material component, as well as a more nervous and schematic drawing.[419] According to Francesc Fontbona, creator of the term "postmodernism" in his work La crisis of artistic modernism (1975), "postmodernism, compared to the idealism or the stylized and dispassionate realism of the modernists, opposes critical realism - marginal theme - and/or aesthetic rethinking" and points it out as an "intermediate generation" between modernism and noucentisme. a "white" wing - the impressionist-symbolist generation - and another "black" wing - the post-impressionist-expressionist generation.[420].
The new generation of modernist painters appeared around a group of young painters nicknamed la Colla del Safrà ("the Saffron Gang"), for their taste in the abundant use of cadmium colors. It was a group of post-impressionist affiliation, which had au plein air painting as one of its basic premises. [421] Formed by Joaquín Mir, Isidro Nonell, Ramón Pichot, Ricard Canals, Adrián Gual - a short period of time, although, as has been seen, their work leans more towards symbolism -, Joaquim Sunyer and Juli Vallmitjana, their work was based on a sketched-looking realism focused on suburban themes, especially from peripheral neighborhoods of Barcelona such as Montjuic or San Martín de Provensals.[422] In this sense, the most paradigmatic work of this group was The Cathedral of the Poor, by Joaquín Mir (1898), which shows some beggars around the Sagrada Familia. Mir, however, soon changed his style, after a stay in Mallorca that began in 1900, in which he focused on capturing the Mallorcan landscape, with a warm and intense color. He evolved again around 1906, due to a convalescence due to mental disorders in the Campo de Tarragona, with a more diffuse landscaping, based on spots of color, close to abstraction.[423] This was a stage of intense personal creation, with works that purified his previous style—excessively decorative—to focus on a drawing with a nervous line with round spots of bright colors that seem to float in the air and where the Elements of the field and clouds rise in twisted volutes that sometimes recall the work of Van Gogh—perhaps because they coincide with mental disorders.[424].
Sculpture
La escultura modernista, como el resto de las artes de este movimiento, fue heredera del Romanticismo, de la exaltación de la humanidad, la individualidad, la emotividad, la sensibilidad, frente al formalismo del clasicismo. La escultura intenta expresar como nunca el sentimiento, la emoción, con dos principales referentes: el ser humano y la naturaleza. Predomina la forma curva, la línea ondulante y sinuosa, que se deshace en múltiples detalles que llenan todo el espacio escultórico.[460] La escultura fue protagonista indispensable de muchos proyectos arquitectónicos, como un elemento principal de la decoración interior y exterior de edificios, sin desmerecer la escultura exenta, que vivió una época de gran esplendor. También tuvieron un gran auge los monumentos funerarios y conmemorativos.[58].
La escultura del modernismo fue heredera del monumentalismo de los hermanos Agapito y Venancio Vallmitjana, si bien con posterioridad recibió la influencia del simbolismo francés, especialmente de la obra de Auguste Rodin,[461] conocida sobre todo a raíz de la Exposición Universal de París "Exposición Universal de París (1900)") de 1900, donde este escultor presentó una retrospectiva de ciento sesenta y ocho obras, que visitaron muchos de los escultores catalanes que viajaron a la capital francesa. Dos de las obras más emblemáticas de la escultura modernista, la Eva de Clarasó y el Desconsuelo de Llimona, se basan directamente en La danaide de Rodin.[462] También fue determinante la influencia del belga Constantin Meunier y su temática obrera,[4] especialmente tras la celebración de la V Exposición Internacional de Bellas Artes de Barcelona, en que se presentaron treinta y ocho obras del artista belga.[463].
Como en la arquitectura, el punto de arranque de la escultura modernista fue la Exposición Universal de 1888, donde, junto a los nombres consolidados de la generación realista anterior (los Vallmitjana, Rossend Nobas, Jerónimo Suñol, Manuel Oms), que coparon los grandes encargos oficiales, surgió una nueva generación de artistas que comenzaban a abrirse camino, entre los que destacaban Josep Llimona, Miguel Blay, Agustín Querol, Eusebi Arnau o Manuel Fuxá. Estos artistas, pese a todo, se iniciaron en el academicismo, para ir evolucionando poco a poco a estilos más personales. Las innovaciones aportadas por la pintura, tras el regreso de Casas y Rusiñol de París, influyeron igualmente en la escultura, ya que aportaron una visión nueva, una nueva forma de concebir el arte, más basada en la inspiración individual que no en el canon imitativo que se transmitía en las escuelas de arte.[464] Como en otras artes, se perciben diversas fases o generaciones de artistas: en la primera se situarían los artistas herederos del realismo académico y que, poco a poco, se van adentrando en la nueva estética; la segunda incluiría los escultores plenamente modernistas; en la tercera y última se situaría la obra inicial de artistas que posteriormente evolucionaron hacia el novecentismo.[4].
Within the first generation, Manuel Fuxá was trained in academicism, as a student at the Escuela de la Lonja in Barcelona, where he was a disciple of Rossend Nobas. He still moved in a realism of formalist concern and serene air. In 1888 he was part of the team of sculptors who worked on the decoration of the Arc de Triomphe. He was the author of various monuments, such as that of Clavé (1888) and that of Rius y Taulet (1901), as well as sculptural decoration for architecture, such as the relief of the Sacred Heart of the Pérez Samanillo house, the work of Hervàs.[465].
Josep Reynés also studied at La Lonja and was a student of the Vallmitjana brothers, as well as Carpeaux in Paris. He was also essentially a realist, although he timidly ventured into modernism. He also participated in the sculptural work on the Arc de Triomphe. He was the author of the Monument to El Greco (1898) that was promoted by the modernist circle of Sitges.[465].
Agustín Querol was a disciple of the Vallmitjana family and achieved, from modest beginnings, great success among the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy, with a large workshop where numerous assistants worked. His work is part of anecdotal realism, but a certain modernist approach can be seen in the workmanship and conception of the work. He carried out most of his work in Madrid, where he lived since 1890.[466].
Rafael Atché also trained with the Vallmitjanas and traveled through France, Italy and the United Kingdom, continuing with the anecdotal realism of his contemporaries. He was the author of the figure of the discoverer of the Monument to Columbus "Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)"), as well as various works for the Hospital Clínico and the Palace of Justice of Barcelona.[466].
Josep Montserrat studied at La Lonja and in Paris. He developed an anecdotal realism with a taste for a certain precious pointillism. His most famous work is the Manelic, located in the Montjuic Sculpture Garden.[465].
Full modernism
Fully modernist sculpture was clearly symbolist, under the direct influence of Rodin. This is evident in the predominance of feeling over the realistic description that until then predominated, the expression of states of mind, of the fusion between matter and spirit. For this, apart from the symbolist ideology, the rise of funerary sculpture was decisive, which due to its very origin reflected a theme that was more sentimental than descriptive, more ideal than anecdotal, through allegories and figures that showed feelings such as pain, loneliness, despair, meditation, generally in the form of stylized female figures, with flowing dresses and long hair, in a melancholic or introspective attitude. This typology was passed on to the rest of the sculpture figures of the time, defining a plastic of polished and wavy surfaces, with a tendency towards chiaroscuro effects, with unroughened bases, figures that emerge from the material, with clothing that blends with the skin and faces generally in faded or non finito.[467].
Its best representative was Josep Llimona, brother of the painter Joan Llimona and, like him, linked to the San Lucas Artistic Circle - he was its second president.[468] He studied at La Lonja and worked in the workshops of Nobas and the Vallmitjana brothers. After winning a scholarship, he traveled to Rome, where he studied at the Gigi Academy. In a first, still academic phase, he worked on works such as the Monument to Columbus or the Arc de Triomphe, with which he gained fame. In most of his works, feelings that will mark his work are revealed: pain and sadness.[469] He began in full modernism with Desconsuelo (1903), a figure of a naked woman half lying down, with her head in her arms, in an attitude of despair, as its title indicates. Located in the Ciudadela park, in the center of an elliptical pond located in front of the old military arsenal that today houses the headquarters of the Parliament of Catalonia, in 1984 the original was moved to the National Museum of Art of Catalonia and, in its location, a copy was placed.[470] It is a paradigmatic work of symbolist spirituality: a mysterious, sensitive, enigmatic, evanescent figure, which combines sensuality and spirituality.[471] His other great work was the Monument to Doctor Robert (1910), in the Plaza de Tetuán, with a somewhat eclectic modernism.[472] Of the rest of his production, in addition to the female figures with a melancholic appearance, the male figures stand out who, even with a vigorous and heroic physical appearance, also transcend a certain melancholy, although framed in a general air of nobility, such as his San Jorge "San Jorge (Llimona)") or his Forger.[473] Died in 1934, he was faithful to his style until the end, without succumbing to the change in Noucentista fashion, which is why he can be considered the most genuinely modernist sculptor.[474].
After the fully modernist generation, a new generation that would stand out in Noucentisme began in the field of sculpture in the modernist era, so their first works were to a greater or lesser extent in this style. These artists focused on a more social theme, like the postmodernist painters, focused on marginal and poverty environments, with a style of simpler lines, with rough surfaces, with more accentuated light contrasts and a preference for bronze compared to the marble that the previous generation used to use.[492].
It is worth mentioning Pablo Gargallo, an Aragonese artist who studied at La Lonja - where he was a disciple of Eusebi Arnau - and was associated with the Els Quatre Gats group. He later spent a stay in Paris, where he received the influence of Rodin. His first works show modernist touches, such as The Beast of Man (1904) or The Humbles (1904), or his collaborations at the Hospital de San Pablo, the Palacio de la Música Catalana or the Teatro Principal de Terrassa.[493].
Ismael Smith can hardly be described as a modernist, but his early works are limited to the heyday of the movement. He was a disciple of Mariano Benlliure, Agustín Querol, the Vallmitjana family and Josep Llimona, and worked for a time in Rafael Atché's workshop. In 1904 he made Tempestad, at the age of eighteen, from which he developed a style that was called decadent.[494].
Jaume Otero, from Menorca, was a disciple of Manuel Fuxá, as well as Albert Bartholomé in Paris. It evolved from early works with a certain faded appearance towards Noucentista naturalism. Among his first works Symbolo (1910) stands out.[494].
The brothers Miguel and Luciano Oslé were influenced by both Josep Llimona and Constantin Meunier, with whom they agreed on the working-class themes, as well as fishermen and simple townspeople,[495] in works such as Inspiration (1904), The Return of the Fisherman (1904) and Slaves (1906), by Miguel; and Brothers (1904), The Villager (1906) and Prisoners (1908), by Luciano.[496].
Enric Casanovas was also a disciple of Llimona. His first works, rather than being framed in modernism, show a certain indecision prior to the search for his own style:[497] The Little Nanny (1903), Sad Walkers (1904), Pastor del Cadí (1907), Bust of a Catalan Woman (1908).[496].
Manolo Hugué was close to the genesis of modernism, since he moved in the circle of Els Quatre Gats, where he became friends with Rusiñol, Mir, Nonell and Picasso, but in 1900 he moved to Paris for ten years, moving away from modernism. However, some of his first works show the modernist style.[498].
Finally, Josep Clarà would be one of the main figures of Noucentisme, although he also began in Modernisme. His love for music led him for a time to make works with a vaporous appearance, similar to modernist aesthetics, such as (1903). Once his style was consolidated, he focused on the female figure, framed in Noucentista Mediterraneanism.[498].
Medalist
It is worth highlighting a section on the artistic specialty of the medal, which at this time had a great effervescence, being practiced by numerous leading sculptors. Generally, they were made to commemorate some event and preserve its memory, through its exhibition and conservation, sometimes being the object of collecting. Medals require certain characteristics, since they are serial objects, small in size, generally round in shape - although also square or rectangular - and must convey a message or idea. They are generally made of metals such as copper, lead, tin, nickel, gold and silver, although they can also be made of glass or ceramic.[499].
The first modernist medals were made by Eusebi Arnau for the Universal Exhibition of 1888, although the majority at that time continued to be neoclassical or romantic in style and would still be for a few years to come. The consecration of modernist medalism would come with the turn of the century, also starring Arnau as one of its greatest architects, in medals such as the one commemorating the demolition of the walls of Barcelona (1895), the one for the Barcelona Agricultural Competition Fair (1898), the one dedicated to Dr. Robert (1901), the one for the Barcelona Merced Festival (1902), the Christmas one for the Barcelona City Council (1906), that of the V International Art Exhibition (1907), that of the National Assembly of Publishers and Booksellers (1909) and that of the Spring Festival (1910).[500].
Along with Arnau, the main medalists of the time were Antonio Parera and Josep Llimona. The first produced medals attributable to modernism at the beginning of the century, after a realistic stage, such as: the Catalan National Festival (1907), that of the Catalan Agricultural Institute of San Isidro (1907), that of the Inauguration of the Palace of Justice of Barcelona (1908) and that of the XI Congress of the Catalan-Balearic Agricultural Federation (1908). Llimona was perhaps the most fully modernist, as in the medal-distinctive for the interveners of the Regionalist League (1907), that of the Barcelona Floral Games of 1908, the Great Medallion Cataluña a Guimerá (1909), that of the Catalan Orfeón (1911) and that of the Excursionist Center of Catalonia (1912). Other artists who made medals to a lesser extent were: Miguel Blay, Pablo Gargallo, Lluís Masriera and Josep Maria Camps i Arnau.[501].
graphic arts
El modernismo, por su carácter ornamental, supuso una gran revitalización de las artes gráficas, con una nueva concepción más enfocada en el acto creador y en la equiparación con el resto de artes plásticas, hasta el punto de que sus artífices plantearon por primera vez la «unidad de las artes». El diseño modernista planteaba en general la revalorización de las propiedades intrínsecas de cada material, con unas formas de tipo organicista inspiradas en la naturaleza.[39].
El diseño gráfico destacó sobre todo en la ilustración para revistas y periódicos, así como en el cartelismo y el exlibrismo, pero fue excelso también en ilustraciones para portadas de libros, catálogos de exposiciones, programas de fiestas y espectáculos, etiquetas, diplomas, invitaciones, tarjetas de visita y todo tipo de impresos, elaborados en general por los mismos artistas autores de ilustraciones, carteles y exlibris.[502] Destacaron sobre todo las revistas ilustradas, como La Ilustración Artística, Hispania "Hispania (Barcelona)"), Álbum Salón, Hojas Selectas, La Campana de Gracia, L'Esquella de la Torratxa, ¡Cu-Cut!, Papitu, Joventut "Joventut (revista)"), Luz, Quatre Gats y Pèl & Ploma.[503].
Un sector que sufrió grandes cambios durante este período fue el de la impresión de libros. Hasta entonces solían ser libros tipográficos, ilustrados con xilografías o calcografías, pero a lo largo del siglo fueron surgiendo nuevas técnicas de impresión, gracias al desarrollo de las rotativas, el fotograbado, la litografía y la cromolitografía, así como la industrialización de la producción de papel y tinta. El desarrollo de las técnicas de impresión comportó la creación en 1898 del Instituto Catalán de las Artes del Libro (ICAL), que a su vez fomentó la creación de una escuela de oficios de la imprenta y la publicación de una Revista Gráfica.[504] Entre las imprentas de la época cabe destacar las de Josep Thomas, Fidel Giró, Joan Oliva y Octavi Viader,[505] mientras que de las editoriales destacó Montaner y Simón.[506] También tuvo un gran auge la bibliofilia, gracias a la fundación en 1903 de la Sociedad Catalana de Bibliófilos y a la publicación de la revista Bibliofília (1911-1914 y 1915-1920), dirigida por Ramón Miquel y Planas.[506].
También se desarrolló la tipografía, gracias especialmente a Eudald Canivell, renovador de las técnicas tipográficas, que desarrolló un estilo goticizante llamado Gótico Incunable Canibell.[507] Otro sector en auge fue la encuadernación, terreno en el que cabe remarcar la obra de Josep Roca i Alemany, creador de encuadernaciones de cuero de gran calidad, como el Llibre d'Homenatge del Futbol Català;[508] o Eduard Domènech i Montaner, hermano del arquitecto, que destacó en la colección Biblioteca Arte y Letras.[509].
Drawing and illustration
Drawing had great relevance in Catalan modernism, not only as a preparatory basis for making paintings, but also on its own, as an independent art. Many modernist painters were great draftsmen and, in several cases, their drawing work is almost as relevant as their pictorial work, as could be the case of Ramón Casas, Adrián Gual or Alexandre de Riquer.[510] Other artists, although they could occasionally venture into the field of painting, stood out more as draftsmen, either as art in itself or as illustrators for magazines, newspapers or books. In terms of technique and style, there were more or less the same variants as in painting, as would also occur in terms of theme, from the more decorative one typical of modernism with European roots to the social theme typical of "black" modernism.[511] It should be noted that the wide dissemination of modernist drawing thanks to the printed media greatly helped the dissemination of the style, especially among the popular classes.[512].
Among the cartoonists, Apeles Mestres should be highlighted first, a member of a previous generation, but who fully integrated into modernism and who should be noted as the creator of a new Catalan school of illustration. He collaborated in magazines such as La Campana de Gracia and L'Esquella de la Torratxa and, thanks to his role as a writer, he approached the creation of books as total works of art, with equal care in texts as in illustrations, as seen in Liliana (1907).[513] He illustrated all types of books, such as La dama de las camellias, El lazarillo de Tormes or the Episodios nationals by Benito Pérez Galdós. Between 1896 and 1906 he published a daily cartoon in La Publicitat. Influenced by Pre-Raphaeliteism and Japanese prints, he developed an austere and linear style, alternating satirical character with more serious works.[514].
From the most symbolist and Art Nouveau line within modernism, Alexandre de Riquer, Adrián Gual and Josep Maria Roviralta stood out. Riquer, in addition to being a painter and writer, was also a great draftsman. He was the artistic director of the magazine Joventut (1900-1906) and one of the main collaborators of the magazine Luz, as well as La Ilustració Catalana, Arte y Letras and others. He also illustrated his own books, such as Quan jo era noy (1897), Crisantemes (1899) and Anyoranses (1902). He had a refined, flat and elegant style, influenced by Japanese prints.[515] Gual also stood out in drawing, especially the illustration of his own texts. He collaborated with magazines such as Luz, Joventut and Pèl & Ploma, he was artistic director of the magazine and editor of the Ibsian magazine . But he stood out in the editing of his own books, of which he dealt with both the text and the illustration, such as (1896), (1897) and (1899). His style moved in a somewhat austere, synthetic symbolism, with empty spaces to emphasize the main drawing, without the usual ornate ornamentations of modernism.[516] Roviralta was an illustrator - he worked mainly for the magazine -, with a certain influence from Vallotton, as denoted in his strong contrasts of black and white. He was also a poet and one of his works, (1902), was illustrated, however, by the cartoonist Lluís Bonnín.[517].
Recorded
Engraving in the century underwent an important technical renewal thanks to lithography, a new type of engraving on limestone, invented by Aloys Senefelder in 1796. Due to its ease of printing and low cost, lithography was widely used in the journalistic environment until the appearance of photomechanical techniques.[530] New techniques such as heliogravure, zincography, photolithography and phototype also emerged. On the other hand, the invention of the daguerreotype and photography led to the appearance of illustrated magazines, especially with the technique of xylophotography and, since 1880, photogravure. All of this led to the readaptation of the old professional engravers, those who worked engravings by hand - in the old techniques of woodcut and intaglio - who became engravers-artists, in which, beyond the technique, their artisticity, the style and quality of their lines were valued. Even so, few Catalan artists cultivated the old techniques: Alexandre de Riquer had an intaglio press in his home-workshop on Freneria Street in Barcelona, where he taught intaglio engraving classes; Joaquim Sunyer and Ramón Pichot were interested for a time in etching, sometimes in color.[531] Joan Vidal i Ventosa dedicated himself to pyrography, for which work he founded the Guayaba studio, also famous for a gathering where Picasso attended. Among his works stands out Vallcarca on a moonlit night, which is in the National Museum of Art of Catalonia.[527] The caricaturist Cayetano Cornet founded a photoengraving industry, later converted into the Union of Photoengravers.[360] Pau Roig was a painter, watercolorist, engraver and illustrator, in a post-impressionist style with vibrant lines and colors; He lived for a long time in Paris, where he made an admirable series of lithographs dedicated to the circus, with the influence of Toulouse-Lautrec. He also practiced etching, in a line more influenced by the work of Cézanne.[532].
A genre that had a great boom at this time was poster art, promoted in those years by chromolithography and sponsored by the increase in advertising, a phenomenon favored in turn by the economic boom of those years.[533] In poster art, a special influence was received from France, where renowned artists dedicated themselves to advertising design, such as Toulouse-Lautrec or Steinlein. However, in Catalonia it soon reached levels of great quality and uniqueness, thanks to artists of equal value, such as Ramón Casas. Trained largely in Paris, Casas designed posters of a quality comparable to his paintings, such as Anís del Mono (1889), Champagne Codorniu, Els Quatre Gats or Paris Cigarettes (1901). Another painter who ventured into poster art was Santiago Rusiñol, a genre that he cultivated above all to advertise his theatrical works, such as L'alegria que passa, Oracions or Fulls de vida. Alexandre de Riquer also stood out, author of posters that show the influence of Alfons Mucha, most of them made with etching, such as those made for the Círculo Artístico de San Lucas or for the Grau y Cía cookie factory. Other notable poster artists were: Joan Llaverias, author of the posters for the Esteva and Portabella fashion house; Carlos Vázquez Úbeda, Ciudad Real resident established in Barcelona, disciple in Paris of Léon Bonnat, author of the famous Sala Parés poster of 1904; Adrián Gual, son of a lithographer, who like Rusiñol advertised his Teatre Íntim, also highlighting his poster for the IV Exhibition of Fine Arts and Artistic Industries (1898); and Javier Gosé, author of posters that show the influence of Gustav Klimt.[534].
Design and decorative arts
El modernismo destacó especialmente en cuanto a diseño, generando un gran número de obras de gran calidad en terrenos como la orfebrería, la cerámica, la ebanistería, la forja, la vidriería, el mosaico y otras disciplinas artesanales.[541] La mayor fuente de inspiración del diseño modernista fue la naturaleza, con especial predilección por la asimetría y la línea curva (olas, espirales, volutas) y elementos como flores, tallos, aves e insectos. En general, se buscaban elementos asociados a conceptos efímeros, a la preocupación por la existencia y a la evocación de la belleza.[542].
El origen del diseño modernista se encuentra en una nueva toma de conciencia liderada por los arquitectos de fin de siglo, los cuales, frente a la recreación de estilos del pasado fomentada por el historicismo, se afanan en buscar un estilo nuevo, un estilo que sirviese a las necesidades de una nueva sociedad que inicia una nueva era.[543] En la búsqueda de este nuevo estilo serán determinantes las influencias procedentes de Europa, especialmente del Arts and Crafts inglés, así como del prerrafaelismo y del simbolismo, e incluso el japonismo; de igual manera, se encuentra un especial referente en el naturalismo, las formas de la naturaleza, bien anatómicas, zoológicas o botánicas.[544] El objetivo es la integración de las artes, la planificación de una obra en su conjunto, en la que hasta el más mínimo detalle está estudiado en un concepto unitario. Arquitectos como Gaudí o Domènech i Montaner abordaron en persona toda la concepción de sus obras, desde los aspectos arquitectónicos hasta la decoración y el interiorismo; cuando no, otros arquitectos encargaron estas facetas a decoradores o artesanos, pero siempre con una visión integradora.[545].
Uno de los mayores impulsores de los oficios artísticos dentro del modernismo fue Salvador Sanpere, quien ya en los años 1870 había valorado en un viaje a Inglaterra la decidida apuesta por la artesanía y las artes industriales en este país. Preocupado por la unión de calidad y belleza en el diseño artesanal e industrial, fomentó conferencias y exposiciones para la difusión de las nuevas ideas, así como la fundación en 1894 del Centro de Artes Decorativas y de la revista El Arte Decorativo, una labor que cristalizó con la organización en 1896 de la Exposición de Bellas Artes e Industrias Artísticas, que por primera vez conectaba estas dos ramas del arte. Otro centro difusor fue el Castillo de los Tres Dragones, el edificio diseñado por Lluís Domènech i Montaner como restaurante de la Exposición Universal de 1888, que se dedicó por un tiempo al fomento de las artes aplicadas, con la participación de arquitectos, artistas y artesanos, bajo la dirección del propio Domènech junto con Antoni Maria Gallissà y nombres como Frederic Masriera, Eusebi Arnau, Antoni Rigalt o Jaume Pujol.[546] Por otro lado, en 1903 se fundó la entidad Fomento de las Artes Decorativas (actualmente Fomento de las Artes y del Diseño), con el objetivo de impulsar la producción artesanal. Su primer presidente fue el arquitecto Manuel Vega y March.[547].
Un claro exponente de arquitecto preocupado por el interiorismo y las artes decorativas fue Antoni Gaudí, que diseñó muchos de los muebles y obras de forja para sus obras, así como innovó en el terreno del mosaico con su técnica del trencadís, un tipo de aplacados de cerámica hecha con piezas de desecho que disponía en combinaciones originales y fantasiosas, como su banco ondulante del parque Güell.[548] En su etapa de estudiante, Gaudí frecuentó diversos talleres artesanales, como los de Eudald Puntí, Llorenç Matamala y Joan Oñós, donde aprendió los aspectos básicos de todos los oficios relacionados con la arquitectura.[549].
En el terreno del diseño, el modernismo se dio en todo tipo de objetos, muchos de ellos tratados como pequeñas esculturas, como jarrones, espejos, lámparas, relojes, bibelots, jardineras, plafones, biombos, ceniceros, objetos de escritorio, juegos de café y otros, elaborados en bronce, plata, cerámica, terracota, estuco, porcelana y otros materiales. Este tipo de objetos estuvo quizá más cercano que otros al diseño Art Nouveau realizado en el resto de Europa, especialmente el francés, con influencia de autores como René Lalique o Émile Gallé.[550].
Decoration and interior design
With the boom experienced by ornamentation brought about by modernism, all the arts and construction techniques related to decoration gained great prominence, such as facings "Facing (architecture)"), coatings and sgraffito. All trades related to stone, wood, iron, glass, ceramics, plaster or stucco were revalued. Decorators, painters, draftsmen, sculptors and craftsmen of all kinds intervened in the field of design. As a general rule, the decoration of buildings, whether on walls or in galleries, balconies, tribunes, columns, pillars, friezes and other elements, was usually carried out with floral, vegetal, geometric or figurative motifs, with a predominance of the curved line and figures such as spirals, arabesques, ellipses, zig-zags and similar.[551].
In general, modernist interior design sought the unification of all the elements of the property to be decorated, their integration into a common design. One of the main interior designers was Salvador Alarma, also known as a set designer, architect of the decoration of several establishments such as the La Paloma dance hall or the La Luna bar in Barcelona. Other notable decorators were Ricard de Capmany, Josep Pascó and Miguel Moragas, whose work was recognized with the inclusion of a specific prize for establishments within the award for the best building "Annual competition for artistic buildings (Barcelona)") awarded each year by Barcelona City Council.[552].
The walls gained texture and color at this time, abandoning smooth shapes in favor of volume and relief, whether in stone or stucco. The use of different stones became popular to play with the tones of each one, the most common being those from Montjuic "Montjuic (Barcelona)"), Figueras, Calafell, Manresa, Murcia or Alicante. When natural stone was not allowed, pigments were used, which at that time had grown in a wide palette of colors, with catalogs that included up to three hundred varieties. The favorites were light and bright, especially green, lilac, blue and pink. As for the stucco, it was usually monochrome and, if a combination of colors was preferred, sgraffito was used. Inside, stuccos that imitated marble or jasper were used. The crowns of the buildings also evolved from the usual friezes, plinths or railings to pediments, shields and temples. The balconies were usually made of cast iron and the most common decorative motifs were flowers, the coup de fouet, the palm leaf and the butterfly.[553].
As for coverings, stucco and sgraffito predominated on the walls, either with ornamental motifs or in imitation of the work seen, with a predilection for reddish and yellowish tones. On interior walls, the use of wallpapers became very popular, most of them imported from France, whose largest importer was the Pineda stores, although decorators such as Salvador Roma, Salvador Sàlvia and Juli Portet also dedicated themselves to their trade; as a national manufacturer, highlighted Antoni Pallejà. Some were designed by architects such as Antoni Gallissà, who patented a type called Pegamoid. Other common resources on the walls were fabrics, mosaics or wall paintings. The floors used to be covered with hydraulic paving, decorated with the same ornamental motifs. The enclosures were usually made of wood, combining different textures and colors, and with iron, textile or wallpaper appliqués. Ceramic or glass ceilings were also often used. Generally, the spaces were conceived as a unit, both floors, walls and ceilings, combining parquet, beams and coffered ceilings with the same ornamental motifs. One of the companies that had a broader catalog in this regard was Casas y Bardés, which patented some wood substitutes called and .[554].
Cabinetmaking
The field of cabinetmaking was also highly developed, since modernist architects placed equal emphasis on the exterior as well as the interior of the building, so the interior decoration was very careful. Many architects designed their own furniture themselves, such as Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner and Puig i Cadafalch.[556] Cabinetmaking was inspired, like the rest of the modernist arts, by organic shapes, with a preference for curves, finding inspiration in plants, flowers, birds, fish or butterflies, as well as the female figure. There was a predilection for light woods, such as ash or sycamore, while dark woods were only used to provide contrast in the marquetry and glass and metal appliqués were used.[557] Mahogany was also used, generally imported from Cuba, which was usually dyed red, carmine or sienna "Siena (color)"). Inlays of ivory, bone, mother-of-pearl or tortoiseshell were also often applied.[558].
Modernist furniture oscillated, as in the rest of the arts in general, between beginnings where the inertia of the past persists and an evolution that anticipates the forms of the future that would arrive with the century.[559] The great precursor of the new forms within modernist furniture was Francesc Vidal y Jevellí. He studied at the School of Decorative Arts in Paris and, in 1883, opened a workshop manufacturing furniture and decorative objects, both in wrought iron, glass and upholstery. His furniture, always personalized and never made in series, reached levels of great perfection, standing out for its assemblies, friezes and moldings.[560] Vidal's workshop was also dedicated to the production of sumptuary and decorative objects, seeking to cover all the decorative needs of a domestic interior, making him one of the first interior decorators of modernism. In addition to cabinetmaking, he was dedicated to glassmaking and forging. It had the collaboration of the best artists and craftsmen of the moment, such as Alexandre de Riquer - as designer -, Antoni Rigalt - in charge of the glass section - and Frederic Masriera - in the forging section -, in addition to his son, Frederic Vidal, designer of furniture, lamps and screens and specialist in cloisonné glass; On the other hand, most of the best professionals of the time were trained in his workshop.[561].
One of its greatest exponents was Gaspar Homar, descendant of several generations of carpenters and disciple of Vidal Jevellí. In 1893 he created his own workshop, in which he developed an excellent work, which evolved from somewhat Gothic style beginnings to a full modernism, which stands out for the perfection of its forms and models, as can be seen in his furniture for the houses Lleó Morera, Amatller, Trinxet, Oliva, Par de Mesa, Marqués de Marianao, Arumí, Garrut, Pladellorens and others. He had the help of various collaborators, especially in the design, such as Alexandre de Riquer or Josep Pey, who designed marquetry and applications of metal, bone or mother-of-pearl, generally of nymphs wrapped in lilies; or from ceramists such as Lluís Bru or Antoni Serra Fiter. After the First World War it evolved towards Noucentisme, with mass production.[562].
Ceramics and mosaic
One of the areas that gained a new boom was ceramics, which was used both in the interior and exterior cladding of buildings, in covering facades, railings and ornamental elements, in the form of polychrome tiles. .[578] One of the causes of the revaluation of ceramics was the rediscovery of the metallic reflection, which was recovered from Mudejar art. In this sense, in 1887 Gaudí and Domènech i Montaner made a trip to Manises to learn in depth about this technique, which they then applied in their work. Domènech i Montaner, together with Antoni Gallissà, formed a crafts workshop in the Castle of the Three Dragons, where some of the best ceramists of the time worked, such as Pau Pujol, Baldomero Santigós and Josep Ros, in addition to the glassmaker Antoni Rigalt and the sculptor Eusebi Arnau.[579].
At this time, new products emerged, such as crystal tiles—an invention of the Oliva brothers—or chromolithographed cardboard tiles, patented by Hermenegildo Miralles.[580] The trencadís technique also emerged, devised by Gaudí together with his then assistant Josep Maria Jujol for various works in Park Güell. It involved the use of discarded remains of ceramics, generally enameled or glazed, sometimes combined with other materials, such as glass bottles, mirrors or earthenware plates and cups, all joined with mortar.[581] With this material, the undulating bench in Park Güell was made, as well as the medallions on the ceiling of the hypostyle room and the dragon (or salamander) on the access staircase to the park. park.[582].
One of the most prominent ceramists was Antoni Serra Fiter, trained as a painter and creator of a workshop that stood out for its high quality, especially in Sèvres-style stoneware and porcelain, of which his bibelots and decorated vases stand out. Various artists and designers worked for him, such as Pablo Gargallo, Xavier Nogués, Ismael Smith and Josep Pey. It won various awards at fine arts exhibitions in Barcelona, London and Paris.[583] Equally relevant was the work of Jaume Escofet, potter and ceramist, creator of the company Escofet & Fortuny, who despite its industrial nature created pieces of high quality, highlighting his pavement tiles, many of which cover the streets of Barcelona, among which the tiles that Gaudí designed for the Paseo de Gracia stand out.[584] Another company from industrial manufacturing was Pujol i Bausis, started by Jaume Pujol and continued by his son, Pau Pujol, creators of most of the tiles and mosaics that covered the modernist buildings, with designs by the architects themselves, such as Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner or Puig i Cadafalch, as well as with the collaboration of artists and designers such as Lluís Bru and Adrián Gual.[584] The ceramics of Pujol i Bausis It is found in works such as the Amatller House, the San Pablo Hospital or Park Güell. The old factory, located in Esplugas de Llobregat, currently houses the La Rajoleta Ceramics Museum.[585].
Glassworks
The art of stained glass was also revitalized, also used in the decoration of buildings as the enclosure of doors, windows and galleries.[577] In this, as in other arts, a level of quality was reached that equaled the period of splendor of stained glass: the Gothic.[584] The boom in the use of stained glass came from architects, who increasingly demanded them for their works, which forced artisans to take great care in both their technique and the aesthetic and iconographic aspects of its creation.[592] Thus, a progressive evolution is perceived from the first works, heirs of historicism, in which ornamental grisailles were still used in the Gothic style, to the stained glass windows full of color and texture found, for example, in the Palace of Catalan Music. The design of these stained glass windows was sometimes carried out by the architect or some other collaborating artist, usually a painter; In others, the glassmaker was left free to make his own designs.[593] Among the painters who designed stained glass windows, it is worth highlighting Alexandre de Riquer, Joaquín Mir, Josep Triadó, Joaquim Renart and Josep Pey.[594].
The most prominent figure was Antoni Rigalt, a painter and draftsman as well as a glassmaker, as well as a professor at the School of Fine Arts. He founded a glass workshop on Calle Mallorca and Paseo de Gracia - the company Rigalt, Granell i Cia., in collaboration with the architect Ferran Granell - which enjoyed great success, with commissions from leading architects to decorate its buildings. Among his works, the glass dome of the Palace of Catalan Music stands out or the stained glass windows of the Lleó Morera house, both by Domènech i Montaner. In 1888 he won a gold medal at the Universal Exhibition.[595].
Other notable authors were: the painter and engraver Francesc Canyelles, author of the stained glass windows in the assembly hall of the Casa de la Caridad in Barcelona, with an extension of; in series of Viennese influence;[596] Frederic Vidal, son of the cabinetmaker Vidal y Jevellí, who studied the cloisonné glass technique in London and worked in his father's workshop making mainly lamps and screens;[417] Joan Espinagosa, importer of printed glass for the first time from England, founded a renowned workshop in Barcelona that had the collaboration as designer of Luis Gargallo, brother of Pablo Gargallo;[597] Lluís Oriach worked for architects such as Manuel Raspall, Josep Maria Jujol and Cèsar Martinell, standing out for the quality of his finishes.[598] Finally, it is worth mentioning the French company Maumejean, with branches in Madrid and Barcelona, which was in charge of the stained glass windows of the Sabadell Savings Bank and the Pérez Samanillo house.[599].
Finally, it is worth mentioning the interesting stained glass project for the restoration of the Cathedral of Mallorca, prepared by Antoni Gaudí in collaboration with the painters Iu Pascual, Jaume Llongueras and Joaquín Torres García, in which they tested a new technique based on trichrome, superimposing glass with the three primary colors.[600].
Forging and foundry
As in other arts, forging developed notably in this period. In general, the cast iron technique was used, although, compared to the industrial and serialized work that emerged since the beginning of the century, artisanal work returned to a large extent. Some architects made designs to be made in a forge, such as Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch, Enric Sagnier, Josep Maria Jujol, José Vilaseca or Alexandre Soler. Along with them, some sculptors also made designs for forging, such as the brothers Miguel and Luciano Oslé, Josep Maria Barnadas or Julio González, son of a forger, Concordio González; and also draftsmen and designers, such as Pau Sabaté.[601] Some cabinetmakers, such as Gaspar Homar or Joan Busquets, also designed wrought iron elements, especially lamps.[602].
The modernist forge stood out for its predilection for the curved shape - especially the so-called coup de fouet - or the helical shape, as well as for its three-dimensionality, since they tended to occupy empty spaces within the architecture and not as reinforcement of a wall or other element that conferred greater two-dimensionality. The bars were generally replaced by handrails or twisted ribbons, with diagonal crisscrosses. As for decorative elements, the most frequent were floral motifs, either naturalistic or historicist, coming from the Gothic tradition, as well as animals, generally related to the iconography of fire, such as dragons or snakes.[603].
As a general rule, architects designed the wrought iron elements for their buildings, which were executed by blacksmiths. They were normally drawings, although Gaudí liked to make small molds in cardboard, wax, clay or plaster.[602] Both Domènech i Montaner and Puig i Cadafalch were generally inspired by Gothic ironwork, as can be seen in the entrance door of the Hospital de San Pablo, formed by vertical bars topped with geometric rosettes and crossed by two large spiral ellipses. Puig i Cadafalch combined Gothic roots with Central European influence at first, while later he sought a more Mediterranean style, as in the Amatller and Terrades houses. The most original was once again Gaudí, whose greatest inspiration is always found in nature, without ceasing to resort to mythical animals or heraldic motifs. We thus see its magnificent entrance gate to the Vicens house, inspired by the palm leaf; the dragon on the entrance gate to the Güell pavilions; the shield of Catalonia with the helmet and the phoenix from the entrance door to the Güell Palace; the doorknob of the Calvet house, in the shape of a cross that a bedbug hits - in allusion to sin; or the balconies of the Milà house, formed by sheets of twisted iron in abstract shapes, perhaps resembling crumpled paper or seaweed, if you have to look for a similarity.[604].
Among the architects, it is worth highlighting the designs of Pedro Falqués, who was municipal architect of Barcelona between 1889 and 1914. He was the author of the design of the lamp-banks on Passeig de Gracia, made up of a limestone bench with a ceramic coating, on which rises a wrought iron lamppost with a sinuous L-shaped line at the end of which the lantern hangs, a plant-type decoration and a finish with the coat of arms of Barcelona, a crown and a bat.[605] Likewise, he designed a type of fountain known as the Canaletas fountain, located on the Rambla with the Plaza de Catalunya, made of cast iron, with a cup-shaped structure with four taps and a column topped by four lampposts.[606].
Goldsmithing
Goldsmithing was a trade with great tradition in Catalonia since the Middle Ages. In 1869 the old guild was dissolved, allowing jewelry and goldsmith professionals to practice freely. In times of modernism they reached levels of great quality, as in the rest of the arts. Due to the deep-rooted tradition of this sector, there were various dynasties of goldsmiths who passed the baton from father to son; the most notable were the Masriera and the Carreras.[613] From the first comes the most prominent modernist goldsmith: Lluís Masriera. His father was a landscape painter, an activity that Lluís also carried out, trained in Paris, London and Geneva. In this last city he learned about enamel work, a technique that he perfected, achieving a type of translucent enamel known as "Barcelona enamel." Influenced by French symbolism and Japanese art, he made high-quality jewelry, in which female figures with a deliquescent appearance, so common in symbolism, predominated. Many of them were defined as "insect jewels" because they resemble the shape of these invertebrates. Among his works stands out the diadem that a group of Catalan citizens gave to Queen Victoria Eugenia on the day of her wedding to Alfonso XIII in 1906. Also dedicated to painting and scenography, he was president of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Jorge. The firm Masriera y Carreras—later Bagués-Masriera—still exists and has maintained a certain neo-modernist style, recalling the years of its greatest successes.[614].
The Carreras dynasty began in the 19th century. In the modernist era, Joaquim Carreras "Carreras (jewelers)") stood out, reaching levels of great perfection in enamel, almost parallel to the work of Lluís Masriera. In 1915 both firms merged.[615] Another illustrious dynasty was that of the Cabots, started by Francesc Cabot Ferrer, father of three brothers: Francesc, Emili and Joaquín Cabot Rovira. They developed a distinctly Catalan style, authors of original models of high quality. The father was the author of the crown of the Virgin of Montserrat (1880), while Joaquín - who was also a banker, writer and politician, as well as president of the Orfeón Catalán - created the crown of the Virgin of Queralt de Berga (1916).[616].
It should be noted that various sculptors also dedicated themselves to jewelry design, such as Josep Llimona, Eusebi Arnau, Emili Fontbona, Manolo Hugué, Julio González and Pablo Gargallo.[617].
Textile
The textile "Fabric (textile)") gained a great boom thanks to the cotton industry, not in vain Catalonia was a pioneer in Spain of the Industrial Revolution. Since the century, the so-called "indianas" stood out, painted or printed fabrics with themes generally inspired by nature (gardens, landscapes), or chinoiseries motifs - of French influence -, framed with garlands and laurel wreaths. A large collection is preserved in the Provincial Textile Museum of Terrassa.[618].
It is difficult to speak of modernist weaving as an art significantly related to this movement, since the textile industry is usually approached more from an economic-social point of view than from an artistic one and, on the other hand, weaving is a relatively perishable material, which survives with difficulty over time; On the other hand, it is subject to the vagaries of fashion and is not a product that is usually collected or preserved for museum or other reasons. Despite everything, although modernist textiles began somewhat late, in this artistic modality it lasted longer than in any other, since pieces in this style continued to be manufactured until the 1940s, due to its success.[619].
In interior decoration, the textile was used mainly in curtains, blinds, upholstery, carpets, rugs, screens, tablecloths, cushions and home linens, in which the modernist style began to be introduced in the mid-1890s, with a special influence from English Arts and Crafts - in fact, at this time numerous English textiles, as well as French, were imported. As materials, cotton, wool, mohair, silk, corduroy, velvet, linen and hemp were usually used, whether plain, embroidered, printed or carved (jacquards). Pegamoid was also used, a type of rubber that imitated leather and was used to upholster chairs. Another field of textile production was sumptuary, luxury pieces for exclusive objects, such as flags and banners, tapestries, damasks "Damascus (woven)") and liturgical clothing, in which luxurious fabrics were used, often with designs by renowned artists, such as Alexandre de Riquer, Sebastià Junyent, Pau Roig, Josep Pey, Aleix Clapés, Joaquim Vancells, Adrián Gual and Josep Pascó. At this time, many architects designed banners for political, religious and cultural associations - especially choirs and somatenes - which were very popular, such as Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch, Gallissà, Jujol, Sagnier, Rubió, Raspall, Masó, Pericas, Balcells, etc. Some of the most successful were those of the Orfeón Catalán, from Gallissà (1896); and that of the Catalan Union, by Riquer (1901).[620].
Among the fabric designers, it is worth highlighting Alexandre de Riquer: a versatile man, he stood out in almost all fields of the arts. He designed banners, tapestries and fabrics of all kinds, among which those made for the Sedera Franco-Española company between 1900 and 1915, specialized in silk neck scarves, stand out. Mateu Culell was one of the first professional industrial designers, who designed fabrics, rugs and prints for industry, as well as ceramics and jewelry. Set designers such as Francesc Soler Rovirosa, Oleguer Junyent and Salvador Alarma also designed fabrics, as well as cabinetmakers such as Francesc Vidal y Jevellí, Gaspar Homar and Joan Busquets - not in vain numerous pieces of furniture were upholstered. Ribera, Aurèlia Gispert and Blanca de Espanya. Some painters such as Lluïsa Vidal and Pepita Teixidor also designed fabrics.[622] Perhaps the most renowned is Aurora Gutiérrez Larraya, who stood out in the design of embroidery, especially prints, many of which became famous for their reproductions in the press.[252] In the field of clothing, fashion trends in Europe were followed, with a special English influence on men's clothing and French influence on women's clothing. The dressmakers Carolina Montagne and Maria Molist —better known as Maria de Mataró— stood out.[623].
Literature
En el terreno de la literatura, el concepto de un «modernismo catalán» es polémico, es difícil establecer su naturaleza y alcance, si es un movimiento separado de la literatura modernista española o no, o cual es su definición y características.[624] Según Alan Yates (Una generación sin novela, 1975), la literatura modernista en catalán nacería con la Exposición Universal de 1888 y finalizaría con la muerte de Joan Maragall en 1911. Para Eduardo Valentí, se iniciaría en 1881 y moriría en 1906, con la aparición del novecentismo.[625] Pese a todo, existe división en cuanto a considerarlo una tendencia, un movimiento o una etapa histórica. Según Joaquín Marco, no es una escuela literaria, ni un movimiento estético. Quizá su principal seña de identidad sea la afirmación de lo nuevo —lo «moderno»— frente a lo antiguo, una actitud de rebeldía, de iconoclastia, frente a las formas literarias anteriores.[626] Aun así, se perciben en su desarrollo las raíces posrománticas, aunque con un afán regenerador, intentando encontrar un lenguaje original.[627] El modernismo se opone al naturalismo "Naturalismo (literatura)") anterior, frente al que oponen una mayor espiritualidad.[628] Al contrario que las artes plásticas, la literatura modernista contó con escasa aceptación entre la clase burguesa, tanto por su temática moderna como por estar escrita en catalán, idioma que no empezó a consolidarse entre la clase burguesa hasta el novecentismo.[629].
El modernismo literario tuvo como primer objetivo la elaboración de una literatura en catalán plenamente moderna, alejada de las formas del pasado —especialmente las de los Jocs Florals—, renovada, de calidad y adaptada a los tiempos presentes. En ese sentido, su primer difusor fue la revista L'Avenç, de signo progresista, republicano y catalanista, liderada por jóvenes escritores como Narcís Oller, José Yxart, Joan Sardá, Jaume Massó, Raimon Casellas y Ramón D. Perés. Así como en la generación anterior el principal género cultivado fue la poesía, los editores y colaboradores de L'Avenç propugnaron la novela como el principal género de la modernidad, una reivindicación que comenzó con un artículo de Jaume Brossa en defensa de La febre d'or, una novela de Narcís Oller publicada en 1892. En consecuencia, el principal objetivo de la nueva literatura será la plasmación de la realidad. Según Raimon Casellas, cualquier fragmento de realidad es susceptible de convertirse en obra de arte, si este fragmento produce un choque emocional. El objetivo del arte ya no es la belleza, sino la emoción. Por otro lado, los nuevos temas de la literatura giran en torno a la ciudad y la vida urbana, las diferencias sociales, la pobreza, la miseria, la soledad, la bohemia, la prostitución, la mendicidad, la delincuencia, en paralelo a la pintura «negra» de Mir y Nonell.[630].
La base programática de la literatura modernista se fundamentó en el nacionalismo y el progresismo, con el objetivo de modernizar la sociedad catalana, especialmente la burguesía como clase dirigente, conformando sus gustos e ideas. En ese sentido, Joan Lluís Marfany definió el modernismo como la transición «de cultura regional, peculiar y tradicionalista en cultura nacional, normal y moderna».[631] Por otro lado, sus raíces ideológicas y estéticas se encuentran en la cultura europea del momento, marcada en lo filosófico por el positivismo, matizado ya en estos años por el vitalismo introducido por Nietzsche —que fue traducido por Maragall en 1893— y por el irracionalismo presente en la obra de Henri Bergson, Herbert Spencer y Arthur Schopenhauer. Estos autores inciden en la primacía del yo, en una perspectiva individualista en que la realidad se percibe a través de la vida interior del individuo, de sus emociones y sensaciones, mientras que el exterior resulta falaz. Pese a ello, en el modernismo se percibe también una corriente naturalista, procedente de la influencia de Émile Zola, ya que se percibe como algo regenerador y que conduce a la modernidad, el máximo objetivo de los modernistas. También incidieron poderosamente las corrientes simbolista y prerrafaelita, defensoras de la corriente estética del decadentismo, otro de los principios básicos de la literatura modernista. Así, frente a la objetividad del arte realista, se defiende la subjetividad, la vía irracional hacia el conocimiento. Los principales modelos en este sentido fueron Baudelaire, Mallarmé, Verlaine y Rimbaud. Otros referentes literarios de la época fueron: Oscar Wilde, Joris-Karl Huysmans, E.T.A. Hoffmann, Edgar Allan Poe, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Pierre Louÿs, Auguste Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, Henrik Ibsen, Maurice Maeterlinck, Émile Verhaeren y Gabriele D'Annunzio.[632].
Con base en el decadentismo, la literatura modernista se centra en lo subjetivo, lo emotivo, en el pesimismo, el tedio de vivir, la angustia existencial, frente a lo cual se presenta como solución el culto a la belleza, al arte por el arte, a figuras como el bohemio "Bohemia (cultura)") y el dandi, que intentan extraer de la vida lo que vale la pena para satisfacción personal. La literatura se centra en el misterio, lo siniestro, lo prohibido, lo marginal, la melancolía, el exotismo, con personajes como vagabundos, dementes, moribundos, degenerados, así como una visión de la mujer que oscila entre la donna angelicata y la femme fatale.[633].
Cabe reseñar la importancia de numerosas revistas literarias y artísticas que sirvieron de vehículo de propagación del modernismo, como La Renaixensa, L'Avenç, Catalònia, Pèl & Ploma, Quatre Gats o Joventut "Joventut (revista)").[634] También en esta época contamos con numerosos periódicos, algunos en castellano y otros en catalán, como Diario de Barcelona, La Vanguardia, El Liberal "El Liberal (Barcelona)"), La Publicidad "La Publicidad (Barcelona)") o La Ilustració Catalana.[635] Algunas de estas revistas marcaron en cierta forma las diversas etapas que sufrió la literatura modernista: una primera regeneracionista centrada en L'Avenç (1889-1893), otra decadentista promulgada desde La Vanguardia y Diario de Barcelona (1894-1897), una tercera de nuevo regeneracionista impulsada por Catalònia (1898-1900) y una última de estética más uniformizada y credo catalanista en torno a Joventut (1900-1906). En la primera, los redactores más significativos fueron Jaume Massó, Ramón Casas, Raimon Casellas y Jaume Brossa; en la segunda, los escritores más relevantes fueron Raimon Casellas —de nuevo—, Santiago Rusiñol y Joan Maragall; en la tercera destacaron de nuevo Maragall y Rusiñol, así como Joaquín Casas Carbó, Ignasi Iglesias y Pompeu Fabra; en la cuarta fueron decisivos Joaquim Pena i Costa, Frederic Pujulà y Carmen Karr.[636].
Narrative
The modernist narrative emerged at a time when Catalan prose was barely being consolidated, little developed during the Renaixença —barely limited to the work of Narcís Oller— and with little acceptance by the public. Added to this is the poor development of a narrative language within the Catalan language - which will be developed more fully with the Fabrian reform - and the lack of differentiated content from the previous literary school, the realist one. Likewise, there were few publishers and few critics who analyzed the new developments that emerged. Thus, the first modernist novel, Els sots feréstecs, by Raimon Casellas, did not appear until 1901, so the modernist narrative can be limited to the 1900s, perhaps at most until 1915, the year of publication of Ildaribal by Alfons Maseras.[637].
Modernist novelists were looking for a subjective language, of psychological introspection, with a certain lyricism, for which they were inspired by the work of authors such as Paul Bourget and Henry James.[638] They went from the omniscient narrator of realism to capturing the consciousness of the character and from a single intrigue to multiple themes, to a fragmented reality, as captured by human subjectivity. Narrated speech or internal monologue was used as a technique, with a "free indirect style" that comes from Flaubert. Resources such as adjectivization, dialectisms, phonetic contrasts, diminutives and augmentatives, onomatopoeias or ellipses abounded.[639] One perceives in the modernist narrative the crisis of reason typical of the time—due to the influence above all of Nietzsche—which translates into a struggle between human beings and their environment. The modernist characters are misfits, subjected to fate, incapable of fighting against their destiny, against which they can only oppose their will. It is a struggle between matter and spirit, between collectivity and individuality, between good and evil, in order to achieve redemption, self-realization. However, nature often prevails and man finds annihilation, hence the pain and frustration that underlies modernist novels.[640].
First of all, it is worth mentioning Apeles Mestres, a member of the previous generation and initiated into Romanticism, from which he evolved towards modernism, a style in which he cultivated both narrative, poetry and theater. Within prose he preferably cultivated biography, memoirs, popular legends and traditional paintings.[641] Among his works the following stand out: La perera (1908), La casa vella (1912) and L'espasa (1917).[642].
Raimon Casellas can be considered the father of the modernist novel, thanks to the appearance in 1901 of Els sots feréstecs. Casellas sought to create a modern narrative, replacing realistic detail with descriptive, plastic prose, inspired by symbolism, where chiaroscuro and suggestion predominate, all through two narrative techniques: generalizing synthesis, by which reality is described through the author's temperament, replacing it with something similar to a caricature; and, in the opposite sense, influence reality from subjectivity, transfiguring it into an artistic ideal. The result is a conflict between reality and ideal, a contradiction that is evident throughout modernist narrative.[643].
Poetry
At this time, modernist poetry experienced a period of profound renewal, in which an attempt was made to overcome the Romanticism of the Jocs Florals and connect with the new European currents, in an effort to modernize it, the final objective always inherent to modernism. Faced with the floral rhetoric and its traditional theme (Love, Homeland, Faith), the aim was to renew the language and content of poetry, with a greater degree of verism derived from the affinity between the creator and his work, which is done through "impression", in line with the literary symbolism practiced in Europe - of which the Belgian (Maeterlinck, Verhaeren) had greater prestige compared to the French (Verlaine, Mallarmé) -. The symbolist influence was denoted in the description of emotional states based on real experiences, all through metaphors that express sensations and feelings. However, since 1898 the symbolist influence was declining, criticized for its little or no social connection, in search of a greater commitment to society and the evils that afflict it. Thus, Joan Maragall would be one of the main critics of decadentism and its pessimistic and individualistic vision of the human being. The new references will be Gabriele D'Annunzio and Walt Whitman. Faced with the symbolist duality of man-nature, an integrative vision is offered between the human being, nature and art, which Maragall synthesizes in his theory of the "living word", in which he conceives Life and Beauty as a whole, where the poet is the only creator and his word, the only truth. This results in "spontaneism", in which all the events of life are integrated into a cosmic harmony of a cyclical and positive nature. Finally, starting in 1900, Symbolist poetry again gained followers, this time with greater influence from Parnassianism and Pre-Raphaelism, with a new generation of young poets defending the sonnet as an ideal stanza, a more classicist current that would lead to Noucentisme.[655].
As in the previous section, Apeles Mestres must be mentioned first. He was a great innovator of poetic language, which he sought to modernize, while at the same time he tried to create new genres that mixed poetry with prose, drama, ballads, stories and legends, either in lyrical dramas or in narrative poems. After several works somewhere between Romanticism and realism, his most modernist work was Liliana (1907), of Pre-Raphaelite influence, where he combined poetry, drawing and graphic design.[641].
The greatest exponent of modernist poetry was Joan Maragall. He was influenced by Romanticism, especially German - and, in particular, Goethe -, while at the local level he was heir to Jacinto Verdaguer. The influence of Nietzsche is also perceived in his work. To this he combined a strong national feeling and a pantheistic attitude towards nature.[656] Maragall was a reference of modernism, who lived as a professional of literary creation and acted as an intellectual in multiple areas of society.[657] In 1888 he published his first important poem, , which is a manifesto of his poetic creed, understanding poetry as an inalienable vocation fruit of inspiration, a unique quality of the poet, which reveals in his work the beauty of the world. His first compilation book of poems was (1895), while he combined his poetic work with collaborations with newspapers and magazines, especially and . He was also a translator of Nietzsche, whose philosophy is perceptible in poems such as and . In those years he also wrote some decadent poems, more out of fashion than conviction (, 1894). From 1896 he began a new stage of vitalist sign, to which he added a greater ideology, related to Catalanism, which he expressed in (1900), where he approached popular poetry and themes of Catalan tradition, as in the first part of .[658].
Theater
The theater was one of the main means of dissemination of modernism, by combining literary texts with their staging, where scenography took on a primary role, which also captured the main characteristics of modernist art. Theater was a reflection in these years of the idea of "total art" formulated by Wagner with his theory of Gesamtkunstwerk. Thus, the performing arts gained a great boom at this time, thanks to the representation of native works and foreign authors, with two differentiated aesthetic lines: the naturalistic, represented by Ibsen, Strindberg and Chekhov; and the symbolist, led by Maeterlinck, D'Annunzio and Gerhart Hauptmann.[679] The main stage of the modernist theater was the Teatro Romea "Teatro Romea (Barcelona)") in Barcelona, which hosted the works of the new modern playwrights, such as Rusiñol, Gual or Iglesias, aimed at a more popular audience, while the bourgeoisie, not yet identified with the new literary movement, preferred the program official of the Teatro Principal "Teatro Principal (Barcelona)").[680].
It is worth mentioning first of all Ángel Guimerá, the great figure of the theater of the previous generation, in a style that oscillated between Romanticism and realism and who, in his maturity, adhered for a time to modernism. At the turn of the century, the successes of young modernist writers led him to try the new style, in works such as Les monges de Sant Aimant (1895), Arran de terra (1901), La Santa Espina "La Santa Espina (sardana)") (1907), La Reina Jove (1911) and Al cor de la nit (1918), based mostly on myths and legends, with characters of great symbolic value.[681][682] Another representative of the previous generation who lived through a modernist period was Apeles Mestres. His dramatic works ranged between naturalism and realism: La presentella (1908), Liliana (theatrical version of his collection of poems from 1907, premiered in 1911).[683].
The great figure of modernist theater was Santiago Rusiñol, who was the main representative of the symbolist line, whose main leitmotiv was the confrontation between the idealistic individual and the pragmatic and petty society of his time. As has been seen in his role as a painter, Rusiñol was a bohemian artist, dedicated entirely to art thanks to the financial support of his family, who belonged to the textile bourgeoisie. Rusiñol lived his life in a dual way, oscillating between an exultant vitalism that he showed in public and an interior filled with sadness and skepticism, which he controlled with drug addiction. Thus, his works move between humor and satire, with a large component of decadent lyricism, as well as a certain costumbrista background. His first success as a playwright was the monologue L'home de l'orgue (1890). In the years at the turn of the century he cultivated the decadent lyrical painting, with works such as (1898), (1900) and (1901). From 1902 he switched to costumbrismo, in a line of regeneration and social criticism, in which he had greater success, with comedies such as (1902) and dramas such as (1902), (1903), (1904) and (1906). His greatest success was the comedy (originally a novel from 1909, adapted to the theater and released in 1917), a work with an autobiographical tone that raises the relationship between the artist and society. Since 1907 he cultivated a more popular theater, with a greater humorous tone, either in the format of a farce (, 1908), a farce (, 1912; , 1914) or a comedy (, 1909; , 1912). His last drama was (1918).[684].
Music
La música tuvo gran relevancia durante el siglo , potenciada por el surgimiento de las orquestas sinfónicas. La principal corriente musical de inicios de siglo fue la del Romanticismo, representada por compositores como Fernando Sor, Ramón Carnicer, Mateo Ferrer, Ramón Vilanova y Marià Obiols. En 1844 se fundó la Sociedad Filarmónica de Barcelona y, en 1886, el Conservatorio Municipal de Música de Barcelona, mientras que, en 1847, se creó el Gran Teatro del Liceo, en 1891 el Orfeón Catalán y, en 1908, el Palacio de la Música Catalana.[696].
En sentido estricto no se puede hablar de una música modernista, sino más bien de un período que aglutina a compositores de diversas tendencias y sensibilidades. Pese a todo, fue una etapa rica y fructífera para la música catalana, con autores que alcanzaron cotas de gran calidad.[697] Desde Europa se recibieron múltiples influencias, desde los últimos vestigios del Romanticismo —en Cataluña gozó de mucho éxito en especial la ópera italiana de Rossini, Bellini, Verdi y Donizetti—, pasando por la singular figura de Wagner —que en Cataluña gozó de un enorme éxito, que cristalizó en la fundación de la Asociación Wagneriana de Barcelona en 1901— hasta llegar al impresionismo musical de Debussy y Ravel. Por otro lado, en estos años fueron surgiendo en diversos países escuelas nacionales que impulsaron el renacer cultural y musical de sus respectivas naciones en lo que se vino a denominar nacionalismo musical, con representantes como Borodin, Musorgski, Rimski-Korsakov, Dvořák, Smetana, Bartók, Grieg y Sibelius, que se reflejó igualmente en España con Manuel de Falla, Joaquín Rodrigo, Francisco Asenjo Barbieri o Joaquín Turina, y que contó con representantes catalanes como Pedrell, Albéniz y Granados.[698].
En este período se popularizó la música coral gracias a los llamados «coros de Clavé», que aglutinaban la música con la fraternidad obrera.[699] José Anselmo Clavé perteneció a la generación anterior a la modernista, pero su obra dejó una profunda huella. Su proyecto pretendía aglutinar la música con la regeneración de la clase obrera, gracias al espíritu comunitario de las sociedades corales. En 1845 fundó la sociedad L'Aurora, a la que siguieron La Fraternitat y Euterpe, que desembocaron en las Societats Euterpenses, que contaron con ochenta y cinco filiales y llegaron a contabilizar más de dos mil coristas. Sucesor de Clavé fue Josep Rodoreda, un músico modesto, pero solvente, que perfeccionó las técnicas corales y transformó los coros inicialmente masculinos en mixtos.[700].
La música coral evolucionó gracias al surgimiento de los orfeones: en 1885 se celebró en el Palacio de Bellas Artes de Barcelona un concurso de orfeones —ganado por el de Bilbao— que causó un gran impacto y conllevó la creación, en 1891, del Orfeón Catalán, fundado por Lluís Millet y Amadeo Vives. Estos compositores promovieron un nuevo estilo musical que, partiendo de las raíces populares catalanas, entroncase con la música coetánea europea. El Orfeón promovió la creación del Palacio de la Música Catalana, donde estableció su sede y donde se sintetizaron todas las artes del modernismo (arquitectura, escultura, decoración, música, literatura), convirtiéndose en el símbolo por excelencia de la nueva cultura catalana.[701].
La importancia otorgada en el siglo a la voz comportó el surgimiento de un nuevo género, el lied, una canción lírica consistente por lo general en la musicalización de un poema, interpretada por una voz generalmente solista y un acompañamiento musical, preferentemente de piano. A finales de siglo surgió con fuerza en Cataluña el llamado «lied catalán», que tendría un gran auge hasta mediados del siglo . El lied comportó el surgimiento de nuevas formas expresivas y el perfeccionamiento de la técnica musical, al tiempo que revalorizó el patrimonio musical popular en busca de nuevas fuentes de inspiración, como serían el trovadorismo medieval o la música bucólica pastoril.[702].
La música sinfónica tuvo en esta época menos predicamento que la coral o la operística y se circunscribió a pequeños estamentos culturales. En 1866 se creó la Sociedad de Conciertos del Prado Catalán y, en 1872, la Sociedad Barcelonesa de Cuartetos, que ofrecían obras sinfónicas de compositores generalmente románticos. Pero sería casi únicamente la Orquesta del Liceo la que ofrecía ocasionalmente conciertos sinfónicos. Uno de sus principales promotores fue Antoni Nicolau, que dirigió varios de estos conciertos que, sin embargo, no tuvieron mucho éxito e incluso fueron duramente criticados. Sería ya con el cambio de siglo y con la llegada de obras de compositores modernos como Mahler, Bruckner o Richard Strauss que la música sinfónica comenzaría a tener éxito. Así, surgieron nuevas entidades, como la Sociedad Catalana de Conciertos en 1892 y la Sociedad Filarmónica de Barcelona en 1897.[703].
Cabe señalar también la importante herencia dejada por Pep Ventura, un compositor de la generación anterior que, al igual que Clavé, dejó una importante impronta por su recuperación de la música popular y folclórica, especialmente en relación con el género de la sardana. Fue el introductor de la tenora, un instrumento que otorgaría una nueva sonoridad al género y lo convertiría en una especialidad inconfundible. Gracias a su intuición melódica, dejó piezas de gran calidad en su género y que gozaron de gran popularidad. La sardana se interpreta con una agrupación musical llamada cobla, de la que surgieron muchas en esta época, como La Principal de La Bisbal (1888). Por otro lado, la música se acompaña de la danza de igual nombre, consolidada en esta época como la danza popular catalana por antonomasia. Cultivaron también el género de la sardana Enric Morera —autor de una de las más famosas, La Santa Espina "La Santa Espina (sardana)") (1907), con texto de Ángel Guimerá—, Francisco Pujol, Antoni Nicolau y Vicenç Bou.[704].
A finales de siglo se popularizó una canción que con el tiempo se convertiría en el himno catalán, Els segadors, una antigua canción popular que fue adaptada entre 1892 (música, Francisco Alió) y 1899 (letra, Emili Guanyavents). Aunque en principio no tenía ninguna connotación reivindicativa ni patriótica, fue adoptada como himno nacional por el catalanismo, sin reconocimiento oficial hasta su consagración por la Generalidad en 1993.[705].
El padre del nacionalismo musical catalán fue Felipe Pedrell, de relevancia en toda la península gracias a su labor musicológica y su estudio del patrimonio popular. Pedrell fue el fundador de una nueva escuela catalana, con obras de gran solvencia técnica, pero cierta indefinición estética, ya que se movió entre la influencia de la ópera italiana y la del wagnerianismo —fue uno de los introductores de Wagner en Cataluña—.[706] Fue autor de óperas, zarzuelas, obras religiosas y música de cámara.[306].
Los dos grandes compositores del modernismo catalán fueron Isaac Albéniz y Enrique Granados. El primero fue pianista y compositor, que aunó raíces folclóricas con la influencia del impresionismo francés.[707] Estudió en Madrid, donde residió unos años y, posteriormente, realizó varias giras de conciertos por Hispanoamérica. Poco después, completó estudios en Bruselas y regresó a Cataluña. También residió un tiempo en París, donde conoció a Casas y Rusiñol, quienes le introdujeron a su regreso a la tertulia de Els Quatre Gats, donde realizó varios conciertos. Fue autor de ópera, zarzuela y música sinfónica, siendo de destacar su suite Iberia "Iberia (Albéniz)") (1906).[708].
Granados fue discípulo de Pedrell, al tiempo que estudió piano con Juan Bautista Pujol. Por su maestro recibió la influencia de Wagner, que fue determinante en su trayectoria, especialmente en el concepto de «obra de arte total», que le llevó a relacionarse con diversos escritores para sus obras, como Adrián Gual o Apeles Mestres. También denotó la influencia del Romanticismo de Chopin, Schumann o Schubert. Completó su formación en París con Charles-Auguste de Bériot, donde conoció a Debussy y D'Indy. Durante un tiempo fue pianista de café, hasta que empezó a cosechar algunos éxitos. En 1900 fundó la Sociedad de Conciertos Clásicos, así como la Academia Granados. Su obra fue una de las más internacionales dentro del panorama musical catalán, hecho que le comportó diversas críticas por alejarse del acervo popular. Destacaron sus obras para piano, como 12 Danzas españolas y Capricho español, así como música de cámara y diversas óperas.[709].
Junto a ellos conviene destacar a Enric Morera, Amadeo Vives y Lluís Millet. El primero fue discípulo de Pedrell y amplió estudios en Bélgica, donde recibió la influencia del impresionismo francés. Fue autor de óperas, música sinfónica, coral, de cámara y para piano, así como sardanas.[710] También armonizó numerosas canciones populares y musicalizó diversas obras de Santiago Rusiñol y Ángel Guimerá. En 1895 fundó la coral Catalunya Nova.[361] Vives se formó como pianista. Sus obras gozaron de gran éxito y fue uno de los protagonistas de las tertulias barcelonesas, donde entabló amistad con personajes como Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch, Ramón Casas, Isidro Nonell y Pablo Picasso. En 1897 se instaló en Madrid, donde desarrolló casi toda su carrera y donde ejerció también de empresario con tres teatros: Zarzuela, Cómico y Eslava. Fue también profesor en el Conservatorio de Música de Madrid.[711] Fue autor de óperas, zarzuelas y música coral, como su famoso L'emigrant, sobre un poema de Verdaguer.[712] Millet fue compositor y director de orquesta, discípulo de Pedrell. Fue director vitalicio del Orfeón Catalán y propulsó e investigó la música popular catalana. Compuso obras corales (El cant dels ocells, El cant de la senyera), canciones populares armonizadas (La dama d'Aragó, El comte Arnau), música sinfónica y para piano y orquesta (Catalanesques).[710] También fundó la Revista Musical Catalana y fue catedrático del Conservatorio de Música de Barcelona.[713].
Cabe citar igualmente a compositores como: Francisco Alió, destacó como compositor de obras para piano y canto, así como fue un importante folclorista;[707] Josep Barberà, discípulo de Pedrell, fue compositor y profesor en el Conservatorio del Liceo, realizó obras para piano, canto y orquesta, entre las que destacan dos sinfonías;[714] Joan Borràs de Palau, compositor y crítico musical, destacó como liederista (Voreta la mar, 1896);[714] Vicenç Bou, compositor de sardanas, entre las que destacan L'alegria del poble y Mirant al mar;[714] Amadeu Cuscó, autor de música de cámara, sinfónica, litúrgica y coral;[714] Juli Garreta, autor de obras sinfónicas de orquestación germánica, como la Suite Empordanesa;[715] Vicenç Maria Gibert, compositor, organista y musicógrafo, discípulo de Pedrell y Millet, autor de obras orquestales y corales, así como canciones populares armonizadas;[715] Joan Lamote de Grignon, compositor, pianista y director de orquesta, autor de obras sinfónicas, óperas y lieder;[715] Miguel Llobet, compositor y guitarrista, instrumento para el que arregló numerosas canciones populares catalanas, como El rossinyol;[715] Joan Llongueras, autor de ensayos y canciones e introductor en Cataluña del método de gimnasia rítmica de Jacques-Dalcroze;[715] Joaquín Malats, compositor y pianista, autor de música de cámara, serenatas, mazurcas, danzas para piano y unas Impresiones de España para orquesta;[710] Juan Manén, compositor y violinista, autor de obras sinfónicas, óperas, ballets y sardanas;[710] Rafael Martínez Valls, autor de música de cámara y religiosa, así como zarzuelas;[710] Apeles Mestres, escritor y dibujante que también compuso varias canciones de evocación rococó;[710] Antoni Nicolau, formado en París, fue autor de óperas, obras sinfónicas y corales;[716] Jaime Pahissa, discípulo de Morera, englobable en el modernismo en su juventud, ya que posteriormente evolucionó hacia el vanguardismo, autor de óperas, obras corales y sinfónicas, música de cámara y para piano;[717] Francisco Pujol, discípulo de Millet, compuso obras religiosas, para canto, piano, sardanas y canciones populares armonizadas;[717] Josep Rodoreda, compositor, pianista y director de orquesta, continuador de la obra coral de Clavé y fundador de la Banda y la Escuela Municipal de Música de Barcelona, recordado por su himno Virolai;[718] Luis Romeu, sacerdote, compositor y organista, autor de obras religiosas y armonización de canciones populares;[719] José Sancho Marraco, organista y compositor de música religiosa, así como canciones populares y sardanas;[719] Francisco Tárrega, compositor y guitarrista, creó la escuela moderna de interpretación de guitarra clásica, autor de numerosas obras para este instrumento, la mayoría de aire orientalizante;[719] y Ricardo Viñes, compositor y pianista, condiscípulo de Ravel, denotó la influencia del impresionismo francés y destacó en sus obras para piano.[712].
Opera
The opera was very popular during this century, initially performed at the Teatro de la Santa Cruz (Teatro Principal "Teatro Principal (Barcelona)") from 1838) and, from 1847, at the Gran Teatro del Liceo, which would become the heart of Barcelona opera. Also during this century, zarzuela was very successful, performed mainly in the Teatro Principal, as well as in other stages, such as the Teatro del Bosque, the Nuevo, the Tívoli and the Odeón.[720].
Among the main performers is the tenor Francisco Viñas, who debuted at the Liceo in 1888 with Wagner's Lohengrin, a role he repeated at the La Scala Theater in Milan. Specialized in Wagnerian roles, he also performed Tannhäuser "Tannhäuser (opera)") and Parsifal, as well as several Verdian operas. He worked in major theaters around the world, achieving notable success. In 1963, an international singing competition was created in Barcelona that bears his name.[721] The baritone Ramón Blanchart debuted in the 1880s, but it was in the following decade when he reached the peak of his career, especially with his interpretation of Iago in Verdi's Otello "Otello (Verdi)"), at the Scala in Milan, and Falstaff "Falstaff (Verdi)"), also by Verdi, in the Lyceum in 1896.[722] Avelina Carrera was an internationally famous soprano, who debuted at the age of eighteen at the Lyceum with Lohengrin by Wagner, in 1889; The following year he achieved great success with Bizet's La jolie fille de Perth. In 1894 she sang in Moscow before Tsar Alexander III and, in 1896, she starred in the world premiere of Umberto Giordano's Andrea Chénier at La Scala in Milan. In 1899 she was Brünnhilde in Die Walküre and, in 1901, she performed Verdi's Aida. In 1906 she performed Bruniselda by Enric Morera.[723] Josefina Huguet was a light soprano, who stood out in the roles of Ofelia in Hamlet "Hamlet (Thomas)") by Thomas, Gilda in Rigoletto by Verdi and Dinorah in the eponymous opera by Meyerbeer.[722] María Barrientos was also a light soprano, who debuted in 1898 with La sonnambula by Bellini, one of her star roles, along with Dinorah, La Traviata, Rigoletto, Lakmé, Hamlet and Mignon. Bizet.[725].
Felipe Pedrell was one of the pioneers of opera in Catalonia. In his early works, some of them in Italian, he showed the influence of Italian opera, as in L'ultimo abenzerraggio (1874), Quasimodo (1875) and Cleopatra (1878). Later it denoted the Wagnerian influence: I Pirinei (1902), La Celestina "La Celestina (opera)") (1904).[726].
Dance
Classical dance (or ballet) developed notably in this century, with two main stages: the Gran Teatro del Liceo and the Teatro Principal.[741] In the century, spectacle dance in Catalonia had three main variants: the pantomimic ballet or "plot ballet", first performed by Italian or French dancers, until Catalan representatives emerged; the Spanish dance or «bolero "Bolero (Spanish dance)"), which had one of its main centers in Barcelona, along with Madrid and Seville; and opera ballet. In general, in this century, choreographies made with typically Spanish elements, such as tambourines, rattles and castanets, or bullfighter or gypsy costumes, were successful, which even foreign dancers took on, since choreographies from other countries were generally poorly received by the public. In the last years of the century, the period of the appearance of modernism, the main ballet shows were those held at the Lyceum, among which were premieres such as Clio or the Triumph of Venus by Joan Goula (1889), Messalina by Giuseppe Giaquinto") (1890), Rodope by Paolo Giorza (1891), Excelsior by Romualdo Marenco (1892), Coppélia by Léo Delibes (1894) and Die Puppenfee by Josef Bayer (1895). Some operas also incorporated ballet, such as Tannhäuser "Tannhäuser (opera)") by Wagner (1887), Carmen "Carmen (opera)") by Bizet (1888) and Samson et Dalila by Saint-Saëns (1897).[742].
Already in the 19th century, the main point of reference continued to be the Lyceum, increasingly dedicated to the institutionalization of a quality choreographic school. Pauleta Pàmies, one of the most famous dancers between the years 1870-1890, dedicated herself to teaching in her adulthood, being a dance teacher at the Liceo, where she trained a new generation of dancers. Despite everything, the first two decades of the century were not very prolific in ballet, due to the political upheavals of the time, which did not favor shows. One of the most relevant premieres was the two-act ballet Les deux pigeons by André Messager (1913). The majority of figures were foreign, especially French and Italian.[743] In the first years of the century, contemporary dance was introduced, whose main representative was Tórtola Valencia: born in Seville to a Catalan father, she developed a personal, intuitive and exotic style, influenced by Isadora Duncan, with which she achieved international success. In 1912 he debuted at the Novedades "Teatro Novedades (Barcelona)") in Barcelona and, that same year, he performed Lakmé at the Liceo. Retired in 1930, she settled in Barcelona, where she spent the rest of her days.[744].
As for popular dances, the most widespread at this time was the sardana, which enjoyed a period of splendor thanks to the revitalization of it by the composer Pep Ventura. It is a group dance that is performed forming a circle with the dancers holding hands in pairs, with a dance performed with the feet, in short and long steps. The music is performed by a cobla, made up of a wind band of eleven instruments and a double bass. It is an evolution of a previous dance, the , of religious origin, which over time became a ceremonial and festive dance, a type of dance that could date back to the ancient Greek choirs. Towards the middle of the century the became the “sardana short”, while later the “long” would appear, which is the one that still exists. Its origin is in Empordà, from where it would later spread to all of Catalonia, becoming the most typically Catalan dance between the end of the century and the beginning of the 19th century. Other popular dances are the , the cane dance and the gypsy dance. At this time, numerous groups of dancers emerged, called , one of the most popular being the Esbart Català de Dansaires, created in Barcelona in 1908.[745].
Photograph
After the invention of photography at the beginning of the century, the first photograph in all of Spain was taken in Barcelona, taken with a daguerreotype on November 10, 1839 in the Pla de Palau by Ramón Alabern.[746] Since then, the process was technically perfected and more and more artists, professionals or simply amateurs dedicated to photography emerged. Since 1850, with the appearance of the positive-negative technique, the procedure became popular.[747] In 1888 the Kodak camera "Kodak Camera (1888)") appeared, which took photographs with the push of a button, so anyone could use it. The democratization of this new technology forced professional photographers to seek a more artistic means of expression, to differentiate themselves from amateurs. New techniques emerged for artistic and professional photographers, such as airbrush or rubber dichromate, which allowed photography to be worked in layers, even applying brushes, in such a way that brought them closer to techniques such as lithography and etching.[748].
The widespread use of photography in Catalonia came with the celebration of the Universal Exhibition of 1888. Until then it had been practically limited to landscape and portraiture, but, with the Exhibition, it began to be used with increasing presence in the journalistic media, as a testimony of current events. It was then that two relevant figures of the new art were established: Antonio Esplugas and Pablo Audouard. Both accurately captured the atmosphere and all the relevant events of the Exhibition, even with aerial photographs, captured from balloons.[749].
On the other hand, in these years photography left the studio and began to be done in nature, just like painting au plein air. An association that promoted this use was the Excursionist Center of Catalonia, which, through the organization of excursions, led to the creation of a large archive of landscapes and postcards of towns and monuments throughout the Catalan territory. Photography applied to science also emerged, especially astronomy, such as those taken at the Fabra Observatory by José Comas y Solá; or in medicine, such as those by Jaime Ferrán and Clúa, some of them under the microscope, or in the field of radiography, the first taken in 1896 by Cèsar Comas.[750].
The work of archiving photographs also began at this time, with Adolf Mas Ginestà standing out in this field, a photographer specialized in art, architecture and archaeology, concerned with the cataloging of the Catalan artistic heritage, which gave rise to the Mas Archive, currently at the Amatller Institute of Hispanic Art. Mas was one of the main collectors of modernist art and even worked for several architects and painters of the movement.[751] Another photographer who documented the work of modernist artists was Francesc Serra i Dimas, who in 1903 made a series of reports of various artists working in their workshops, which he compiled in 1905 in the album Our artists.[752].
In the documentary and photojournalism field, it is worth highlighting the work of Josep Brangulí and Alejandro Merletti. The first worked as a reporter for La Vanguardia, masterfully reflecting the life and events of Catalan society at the time. The Italian Merletti settled in Barcelona in 1889 and became famous for using a motorcycle with a sidecar to travel with the team. One of his best works was monitoring the court-martial of Francisco Ferrer Guardia in 1909, for which he used a mini-camera. Another area where photography stood out was in sports, which favored the appearance of specialized newspapers, such as El Mundo Deportivo (1906).[753].
Finally, in the field of artistic photography, the so-called pictorialism emerged in these years, a movement that claimed the artisticity of the photographic medium, whose best representatives in Catalonia were Pere Casas Abarca and Joan Vilatobà. The first, nephew of the sculptor Venancio Vallmitjana, made a series of study images that reflected different currents within modernism, such as symbolism, pre-Raphaeliteism and orientalism, with allegorical and religious references, although without sometimes disdaining eroticism. He also made photographs and advertising posters, in a style indebted to Alexandre de Riquer. Vilatobà was a painter and photographer, in a symbolist style, specialized in portraits, interiors and "Nude (artistic genre)" nudes, as well as landscapes, which denote the influence of Modesto Urgell. His artisticity basically comes from composition, since he almost never made retouches. On the other hand, at this time the first photographic exhibitions emerged and photography was even included as a modality in artistic competitions, such as the Third General Exhibition of Fine Arts and Artistic Industries of Barcelona (1896). In 1905, the San Lucas Artistic Circle included photography as its fourth section, after painting, sculpture and architecture/decorative arts.[754].
Cinema
The modernist period coincided chronologically with the invention of the cinematograph by the Lumière brothers in 1895. Even so, since it was an art in its infancy, it did not have a specific link with this style, so it is not possible to speak of a modernist cinema, only a "cinema of the modernist era", otherwise of little production. In its beginnings, cinema was considered more of a scientific advance than an art, so it was not especially welcomed by the cultural elites. Until practically the mid-1910s, cinema did not acquire artisticity, with figures such as D. W. Griffith or Erich von Stroheim, just when modernism was coming to an end.[755].
The first film screening took place in Barcelona in 1896, made by the Lumière brothers. These first films were animated photography, without a narrative sense, and were made at fairs, commercial premises, hotels or photography studios. After this exhibition, Fructuós Gelabert, a science and technology enthusiast, built his own camera and in 1897 shot Riña en un café, the first film made in Spain. This was followed by others such as Departure of the workers from the España Industrial factory (1897), Visit to Barcelona by the Queen Regent Doña María Cristina and Don Alfonso XIII (1898) and Arrival of a train at Barcelona North Station (1898).[756].
After these first experiences, cinema began to gain popularity as a spectacle and the first theaters dedicated exclusively to its exhibition were opened, promoted by promoters such as Lluís Macaya or Baltasar Abadal. Despite everything, during these first years cinema was alien to the modernist movement, present only in the genre of advertising, which, as in any other sector, at that time had a modernist aesthetic, or in the decoration of movie theaters.[757].
The first foray of the modernist movement into new art were the "talking films" at the Sala Mercè, a venue inaugurated in 1904 by the painter Luis Graner. Designed by Gaudí, this room was designed to offer all types of artistic shows, including cinema. Specifically, they focused on two: “musical visions,” which combined staged texts with music; and "spoken film projections", consisting of filmed tapes accompanied by a text recited by actors. The director of all these shows was Adrián Gual, the first artist dedicated to the new art, until then practiced by technicians or businessmen. In total, twenty-two of these projections were produced, all of them in the comic genre, of which unfortunately none survive. Some of them were written by Gual himself and actors from his company Teatre Íntim participated. On the other hand, Segundo de Chomón, later director and pioneer of cinema, participated as camera operator in some of them. Three documentary films about artists of the moment—therefore, modernists—were also made in this room: the first, from 1905, featured Modesto Urgell, Ramón Casas, Carles Vidiella, Arcadio Mas, Josep Llimona and Santiago Rusiñol. In the others, other artists also appeared, both plastic artists, musicians and writers. All three are of unknown author. Since 1905, the Sala Mercè focused on musical visions and the occasional documentary, but left the spoken films.[758].
In the following years, cinema focused on foreign productions and companies such as Pathé Frères and Gaumont "Gaumont (film company)") opened branches in Barcelona, as the new art was beginning to be a successful business. In 1906, the first Catalan production companies, Films Barcelona and Hispano Films, were founded, and the number of local productions grew progressively. In 1908, Ricardo de Baños filmed his famous Barcelona en tram, in which he traveled around the city on a tram. Documentaries continued to predominate, although fiction grew, which in turn diversified into genres, often based on plays or novels. Despite everything, cinema remained far from modernism, a movement from which it even received strong criticism, such as those received by Santiago Rusiñol in some articles in L'Esquella de la Torratxa.[759].
The marriage between cinema and modernism finally occurred with the solo stage of Adrián Gual, once he was separated from the Sala Mercè. After the creation in France of Film d'art, a genre that imitated theater by recreating classic works of drama, in 1913 Gual founded the production company Barcinografia S.A. After assembling a solvent team of artists and professionals, Gual directed eight films between 1914 and 1915. The first were El Alcalde de Zalamea "The Mayor of Zalamea (1914 film)") (with text by Calderón de la Barca), Misteri de Dolor (text by Gual himself), Fridolin (by Schiller), La Gitanilla (by Cervantes) and The White Hairs (by Tolstoy). Unfortunately, only one survives, Misteri de Dolor, a rural drama that moves somewhat away from the theatricality of Film d'art and pioneers the plasticity of the new medium, through shots and framing that escape the general shot of theatrical adaptations, as well as lighting that emphasizes the narrative thread and a whole series of resources such as reverse shots, panoramic shots and scale jumps. Unfortunately, Gual's initiative did not work out financially and, at the request of the production company's investors, he went on to make more commercial films, more to the public's taste: Linito wants to be a bullfighter, The Calvary of a Hero and A Love Drama. Despite everything, he did not recover and, in 1915, he resigned.[760].
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Catalan Modernism.
• - Modernism Route.
References
[1] ↑ Término introducido por Francesc Fontbona en La crisis del modernismo artístico (1975).[2] No confundir con el arte posmoderno —o arte propio de la posmodernidad— de los siglos xx y xxi.[3].
[2] ↑ El historiador Josep Fontana (La formació d'una identitat, 2014) opina en cambio que la revitalización del catalán no provino de la Renaixença ni los Juegos Florales, cuyos escritores eran en su mayoría castellanohablantes y miembros de la burguesía que solo hablaban catalán con el servicio doméstico y que escribían en catalán solamente como ejercicio retórico, un catalán además de tipo arcaizante, que no era el hablado en su tiempo por la gente corriente. En cambio, señala como agentes popularizadores del catalán a dramaturgos autores de obras populares como Serafí Pitarra, los coros de Anselmo Clavé o revistas como Un tros de paper, Lo Noy de la mare o La Campana de Gracia.[22].
[3] ↑ El modernismo recibió numerosos otros nombres, casi todos ellos relacionados con su gusto por la curva: paling stijl (estilo anguila), style nouille (estilo tenia), wellenstil (estilo ondulante), gereizter Regenwurm (estilo lombriz erguida), style coup de fouet (estilo golpe de látigo), style fumée de cigarette (estilo humo de cigarro) o stile floreale (estilo floral).[29].
[4] ↑ En tal sentido, Josep Francesc Ràfols comentó en una ocasión que «son tan distintas las personalidades que en esta corriente desembocan que nada o casi nada de aglutinante podemos descubrir a menudo entre ellas; por lo cual, más que tratar del modernismo como supuesta escuela o tendencia, departiremos de los modernistas, fracciones de una abigarrada suma que al matemático más sagaz le fuera difícil poderlas reducir a común denominador, ya que a veces incluso unas con otras se contradicen».[73] Igualmente, Pedro Navascués señala que «si hubiera que justificar la coherencia de este modernisme catalán diría que este no reside tanto en el arte y la arquitectura como en el ambiente cultural que baña Barcelona y respiran sus gentes, especialmente una burguesía adinerada, vinculada al comercio y la industria, que se reconoce en el modernismo como sus padres y abuelos lo hicieron en el mejor eclecticismo».[73].
[5] ↑ Por su artículo En busca de una arquitectura nacional, publicado en 1879 en la revista La Renaixensa.[135].
[6] ↑ El nombre de Cau Ferrat («nido herrado») proviene de la colección de hierros que tenía Rusiñol en su taller, que traspasó a su nueva casa en Sitges, construida en 1893 por el arquitecto Francesc Rogent en la finca Can Falau, ampliada al año siguiente con otra contigua, Can Sensa. Actualmente acoge el Museo Cau Ferrat.[379].
[7] ↑ No confundir con Sebastià Junyent.
[8] ↑ Hay que descontar el curso académico 1897-1898, en que estudió en la Academia de San Fernando de Madrid; por otro lado, entre 1898 y 1898 pasó una templorada en Horta de San Juan (Tarragona), donde vivía su amigo el pintor Manuel Pallarès.[453].
[9] ↑ Especialmente de amigos suyos, como Joan Vidal i Ventosa, Carlos Casagemas, Josep Cardona, Ricardo Opisso, Josep Maria Folch i Torres, Jaime Sabartés, Eveli Torent, Manuel Pallarès y los hermanos Jacinto y Ramón Reventós, que expuso en febrero de 1900 en Els Quatre Gats.
[10] ↑ Fontbona et al., 2003, p. 11.
[11] ↑ a b Fontbona et al., 2003, p. 46.
[12] ↑ El llibre d'or de l'art català, pp. 171-172.
[13] ↑ a b c Bassegoda i Nonell, Infiesta y Marco, 1981, p. 148.
[198] ↑ Ferrer y Gómez Serrano, 2002, pp. 137-139.
[199] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 58.
[200] ↑ Fontbona et al., 2002, p. 136.
[201] ↑ Monner i Faura, Jordi (1992). BCN 92. Guía de La Vanguardia. 7: De la plaza Catalunya a la plaza Lesseps. Eixample. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. p. 9.
[202] ↑ Midant, 2004, pp. 749-750.
[203] ↑ Huertas, Capilla y Maspoch, 2005, p. 74.
[204] ↑ Fontbona y Miralles, 2001, pp. 152-153.
[205] ↑ Miralles, 2008, p. 73.
[206] ↑ Lacuesta y González, 1997, p. 49.
[207] ↑ Huertas, Capilla y Maspoch, 2005, pp. 202-205.
[208] ↑ Lacuesta y González, 1997, p. 135.
[209] ↑ Sagnier. Arquitecte, Barcelona 1858-1931, p. 15.
[210] ↑ Barjau, 1992, p. 12.
[211] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, pp. 192-193.
[212] ↑ Monner i Faura, Jordi (1992). BCN 92. Guía de La Vanguardia. 7: De la plaza Catalunya a la plaza Lesseps. Eixample. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. p. 20.
[220] ↑ Bassegoda i Nonell, Infiesta y Marco, 1981, p. 132.
[221] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 208.
[222] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 205.
[223] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 211.
[224] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 95.
[225] ↑ Lacuesta y González, 1997, p. 29.
[226] ↑ Huertas, Capilla y Maspoch, 2005, pp. 190-194.
[227] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, pp. 198-199.
[228] ↑ Barral i Altet et al., Jornet, p. 140.
[229] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 164.
[230] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 197.
[231] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 90.
[232] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 85-86.
[233] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 91.
[234] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 117.
[235] ↑ a b Fontbona et al., 2002, p. 132.
[236] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 34.
[237] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 315-317.
[238] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 320-322.
[239] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 335.
[240] ↑ Huertas, Capilla y Maspoch, 2005, p. 211.
[241] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 374-375.
[242] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 175.
[243] ↑ a b Maspoch, 2008, p. 136.
[244] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 120-121.
[245] ↑ Monner i Faura, Jordi (1992). BCN 92. Guía de La Vanguardia. 3: De la Rotonda al Observatori fabra. Tibidabo / Del Auditori a la Plaça de la Palmera. Meridiana. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. p. 1.
[258] ↑ Monner i Faura, Jordi (1992). BCN 92. Guía de La Vanguardia. 7: De la plaza Catalunya a la plaza Lesseps. Eixample. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. p. 29.
More than a style or a trend, Catalan modernism was a cultural movement that sought to modernize and regenerate Catalan culture. It was an innovative and original movement, which sought through art – expressed in all its facets – to build a modern culture with a national sign, while linked to new European currents. This movement conceived of art as a universal phenomenon and defended the interdependence of all the arts. Modernism connected with the cultural renaissance initiated by the Renaixença, but with the desire to modernize it, to integrate Catalan culture into the European avant-garde. Inspired by trends such as Arts and Crafts, he advocated the integration of all the arts, from architecture and the plastic arts to graphic design and applied and industrial arts, as well as interior design and design.
Modernism stood out especially in architecture, with a series of names that have become references of global relevance, especially Antoni Gaudí, Lluís Domènech i Montaner and Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Modernist architecture was largely heir to the previous currents, historicism and eclecticism, with which it coexisted for a time. Its starting point can be placed in the Universal Exhibition of 1888, although there are various antecedents that are usually described as "pre-modernism", while its end is in the 1920s, although by then it was already in decline, especially since the emergence of Noucentisme the previous decade. Modernism did not in fact contribute anything new to the structural wealth of the construction technique and was manifested above all in the field of ornamentation, with a decorative style with romantic roots that brought together various influences from previous styles, especially Gothic and oriental architecture. Perhaps the main innovations were those introduced by Gaudí, who developed an organic style inspired by nature, based on regulated geometry.
Modernist painting developed in connection with the main current currents in Europe, especially impressionism and symbolism. Its introducers were Ramón Casas and Santiago Rusiñol, both of whom had brief stays in Paris, where they were able to catch up on the main developments of the time. After a first generation of painters, a series of young artists formed a second generation, generally described as "postmodernism"[note 1] in which there are names such as Joaquín Mir, Isidro Nonell, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa and Francisco Gimeno, as well as the presence of a young Pablo Picasso, who entered the Barcelona modernist environment around the year 1900, a fact that would mark a change in his career and his affiliation to avant-garde art.
The sculpture was heir to Romanticism, although it later received the influence of French symbolism, especially the work of Auguste Rodin. The names of Josep Llimona, Eusebi Arnau, Miguel Blay and Enric Clarasó stand out, who were preceded by a pre-modernist generation and also succeeded by another post-modernist one. In addition to free-standing sculpture, sculpture applied to architecture was of great relevance, given the ornamental character of modernist architecture; Funerary and commemorative sculpture also gained great popularity.
Modernism also stood out in the field of design, graphic and decorative arts, generating a large number of quality works in fields such as poster art, printing, goldsmithing, ceramics, carpentry and cabinetmaking, forging, glasswork, mosaic and others. Modernism sought to bring together all the arts and crafts into a unity that encompassed everything, which is why it treated any artistic work with equal care, from the smallest and most modest to the largest. On the other hand, given the ornamental nature of this style, the decorative arts had a great boom and received the same appreciation as the major arts.
Literature also experienced a time of great splendor, marked by a desire to modernize and regenerate culture and language, separating itself from the previous generation - of the naturalistic sign "Naturalism (literature)") - in search of new forms of expression. As in the rest of the arts, European influence was received, especially symbolism and Parnassianism, as well as the realistic drama of Ibsen and, in the field of philosophy, the work of Nietzsche. The main authors were Víctor Català, Prudenci Bertrana and Joaquim Ruyra in narrative; Joan Maragall in poetry; and Santiago Rusiñol, Ignasi Iglesias and Adrián Gual in theater.
Music was heir to Romanticism, as well as the new currents that emerged in the second half of the century around musical nationalism. One of the most influential figures was Richard Wagner, whose work was highly appreciated in Catalonia, as denoted by the foundation in 1901 of the Wagnerian Association of Barcelona; Likewise, Italian opera was highly appreciated. The most notable composers were Felipe Pedrell, Isaac Albéniz, Enrique Granados, Enric Morera, Amadeo Vives and Lluís Millet. Modernism was also present in the genres of opera, zarzuela and dance.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that modernism was also manifested in photography and cinema, although to a lesser extent and more as a period within the historical succession of these arts in Catalonia than as a defined style.
Origin
Historical context
The century had a turbulent start in Spain as a whole, due to the War of Independence with France resulting from the Napoleonic invasion. In 1812, the first Spanish Constitution was promulgated,[5] which led to the modernization of State structures, but expectations were soon frustrated with the reinstatement of absolutism by Ferdinand VII. Thus, the century was polarized by the struggle between conservative and liberal parties, to which was added the emergence of Carlism due to the succession dispute between the daughter of Fernando VII (Isabel II) and his brother, Carlos María Isidro.[6].
In 1868 a revolution - nicknamed the Glorious - began the so-called Democratic Sexennium (1868-1874), which led to the exile of Isabel II and the brief reign of Amadeo of Saboya, until the proclamation of the First Republic, also short-lived, since a coup d'état in 1874 opened the way for monarchical restoration, in the person of Alfonso XII,[7] a period of political stability thanks to the alternation of conservatives - led by Cánovas del Castillo - and liberals - led by Sagasta.[8].
The end of the century was a turbulent time of great social unrest: Catalanism emerged as a movement of discontent with the centralist politics developed in Madrid, which was reflected in the celebration in 1880 of the First Catalan Congress, the delivery in 1885 to King Alfonso the struggle between employers and unions. Between the end of the century and the beginning of the century, there were revolts and bomb attacks proliferated, such as the one carried out in 1893 against General Martínez Campos, the one at the Liceo Theater the same year or the Corpus Christi procession in 1896, which caused harsh repression - known as the Montjuic trials.[10].
In the economic field, the Industrial Revolution had a rapid implementation in Catalonia, being a pioneer in the national territory in the implementation of manufacturing procedures initiated in Great Britain in the 19th century. In 1800 there were one hundred and fifty textile factories in Barcelona, whose industry had continuous growth until the crisis of 1861, motivated by the cotton shortage due to the American Civil War. colonies - mainly Cuba -, those of the so-called Indians.[13] Between 1876 and 1886 there was the so-called Gold Rush "Gold Rush (Catalonia)"), a period of economic prosperity that arose in a climate of financial speculation "Speculation (economy)") through credit societies.[14] In 1886 the Barcelona Chamber of Commerce was founded, which promoted the interests of businessmen. and Catalan industrialists.[15].
At the turn of the century, a new political scenario opened, marked by the loss of colonies in America and Asia and the rise of the Regionalist League, led by politicians such as Francisco Cambó, Enric Prat de la Riba and the architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch. (Spain)"), due to the successive defeats of the Spanish army in Morocco, which forced the government to recruit new levies to send to the front, which were mainly nourished by humble people, since the favored classes could buy the dispensation for a modest amount of money. This event sparked a popular uprising in Barcelona, which channeled the anger and frustration of the working class over its marginal situation. The revolt was put down by the army, with a balance of two thousand five hundred detained, who were tried militarily.[18].
At a social level, it is worth noting that in the period in which modernism developed, numerous associations, companies and entities of relevance to Catalan society emerged, such as the Centro Excursionista de Catalunya (1891), the Orfeón Catalán (1891), the Fútbol Club Barcelona (1899) and the Pension Fund for Old Age and Savings of Catalonia and the Balearic Islands ("la Caixa", 1904).[19].
Cultural renaissance
The economic prosperity and social strength of Catalonia in the century favored a resurgence of Catalan culture, the so-called Renaixença ("Renaissance"). This cultural movement developed approximately between 1830 and 1880, and had as its starting point the Ode to the Homeland by Buenaventura Carlos Aribau (1833), a poem written in Catalan that once again gave prestige to this language for cultured literature.[20] Due to the influence of Romanticism, the Catalan language was revalued as a vehicle of self-expression, which led to a new feeling of national consciousness and the specificity of the culture. Catalan. Literature was encouraged with the creation of the Floral Games, a poetry contest promoted by the Barcelona City Council that began to be held in 1859. New publications such as Calendari Català, Lo Gay Saber and La Renaixensa also spread the movement. Authors such as Aribau, Joaquim Rubió y Ors, Víctor Balaguer, Manuel Milá and Antonio de Bofarull laid the foundations for the Catalan literary resurgence.[21][note 2].
Journalistic publishing and dissemination also increased, with newspapers in Catalan (Lo Verdader Catalá, 1843; Diari Català, 1879; La Veu de Catalunya, 1899) and Spanish (El Telégrafo, 1858; El Correo Catalán, 1876; La Publicidad "La Publicidad (Barcelona)"), 1878; The Flood "The Flood (newspaper)"), 1879; The Vanguard, 1881; El Noticiero Universal, 1888; Las Noticias "Las Noticias (Barcelona)"), 1896). The Diario de Barcelona continued to be published, which, under the direction of Juan Mañé Flaquer, was one of the main references in all of Spain. In 1880 La Ilustració Catalana was born, the first graphic magazine in Catalan.[23].
World's Fair of 1888
In 1888 an event was held that had a great economic, social, urban, artistic and cultural impact for Barcelona and the whole of Catalan modernism: the Barcelona Universal Exhibition "Barcelona Universal Exhibition (1888)"). It took place between April 8 and December 9, 1888 and was held in the Citadel park, land previously belonging to the Army and won for the city in 1868. The incentive of the fair events led to the improvement of the infrastructure of the entire city, which took an enormous leap towards modernization and development.[24] Among other things, the event coincided with the beginning of street lighting with illumination. electrical.[25].
The event involved the remodeling of the Ciudadela park, designed by José Fontseré, in addition to the Salón de San Juan (current Lluís Companys promenade), a long wide avenue that served as the entrance to the Exhibition, at the beginning of which the Arc de Triomphe, designed by José Vilaseca, was located. The Plaza de Cataluña began to be urbanized, a process that would culminate in 1929 thanks to another exhibition, the International Electrical Industries "International Exhibition of Barcelona (1929)"); The Riera d'en Malla was covered, giving rise to the Rambla de Catalunya; Parallel Avenue began; and the Paseo de San Juan was extended towards Gracia and the Gran Vía de las Cortes Catalanas towards the west.[26] The Columbus Monument "Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)") was also erected, at the end of the Rambla, next to the Port of Barcelona. Most of the buildings and pavilions built for the Exhibition disappeared after its completion, although the Castle of the Three Dragons and the Martorell Museum - both integral parts of the Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona -, the Greenhouse and the Umbracle survived, while a part of the park was later occupied by the Barcelona Zoo.[27].
international modernism
Modernism "Modernism (art)") was an international movement that developed throughout the Western world, especially in Europe, where it received various names depending on the place of origin: Art Nouveau in France, Jugendstil in Germany, Sezession in Austria, Liberty in Italy or Modern Style in the United Kingdom.[28][note 3] The consolidation of modernism at an international level occurred with the Universal Exhibition in Paris. "Paris Universal Exhibition (1900)") of 1900[30] and lasted until the start of the First World War.[28].
The term "modernism" arose with the meaning of "taste for the modern", given the intention of creating a new art, in accordance with modernity, with the economic and social project initiated with the Industrial Revolution.[31] Its main social driving force was the bourgeoisie, which advocated a more modern and elegant style, but without losing the roots of the past, and with a certain latent substrate of Romanticism, perceptible in currents such as symbolism and aestheticism - the doctrine of "art". for art »—.[32].
Modernism sought to break with the styles of the past - especially the academic ones -, renewing the artistic language and uniting all the arts in a homogeneous group, with a new original and creative aesthetic vision, detached from industrial production to once again revalue traditional artistic crafts,[31] in parallel to the Arts and Crafts phenomenon.[33] This new style represented an evolutionary link between the architecture of the century, rooted in historical styles, and that of the new century, more refined and modern, whose greatest expression would be rationalism "Rationalism (architecture)"). Although theoretically opposed to historicism, they were inspired by numerous styles of the past, especially medieval, Celtic, oriental and rococo art.[34]
In the field of architecture, two fundamental currents can be seen: one with more historicist roots and a plastic character, with undulating lines, with a certain tendency towards emotionality, represented by France and Belgium - which would include Spain -; and another more severe and rational, with geometric shapes and planimetric composition, which would evolve towards functionalism "Functionalism (architecture)"), developed mainly in Austria and the United Kingdom.[35] The first had its epicenter in Belgium, thanks to the work of Victor Horta, the main representative of Art Nouveau. He was one of the first architects to use iron as a decorative element and designed a series of buildings that combined constructive functionality with a lyrical language, such as the Tassel House in Brussels (1893). Another exponent was Henry Van de Velde. In France, it is worth highlighting the work of Hector Guimard, also an architect and decorator, author of the Castel Béranger (1894-1898) and the Paris Metro stations (1899-1900).[36] In the second current, the English line was heir to the Arts and Crafts movement, a decisive influence on the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh (Glasgow School of Art, 1898-1909). In Austria there was the secessionist movement, a functional style that would decisively influence German rationalism. Its main exponents were Otto Wagner, Joseph Maria Olbrich and Josef Hoffmann.[37].
Despite its unifying desire, Art Nouveau occurred more—in the international context—in architecture and the graphic and applied arts, not so much in the plastic arts, where in any case its most genuine exponents would be artists such as Gustav Klimt, Ferdinand Hodler, Alfons Mucha, Aubrey Beardsley, Jan Toorop, the Nabis "Nabis (artists)") or the Pont-Aven group.[38] As for In sculpture, his main reference would be Auguste Rodin, as well as Constantin Meunier. Due to its ornamental character, modernism represented a great revitalization of the decorative arts, with a new conception more focused on the creative act and on the comparison with the rest of the plastic arts, to the point that its creators proposed for the first time the "unity of the arts." Modernist design generally proposed the revaluation of the intrinsic properties of each material, with organic forms inspired by nature,[39] where the curve and arabesque predominate, the use of flowers and plant shapes, sea waves and animals with sinuous shapes such as butterflies, swans, turkeys and dragonflies.[40] Among its main architects, Émile Gallé (ceramist and glassmaker), René Lalique stood out. (goldsmith), Koloman Moser (designer), Louis Majorelle (cabinet maker) and Louis Comfort Tiffany (jeweler and glass maker).[41].
In the rest of the arts it is difficult to establish parallels, since at the European level there is no literary or musical modernism. In literature, the main contemporary references were Parnassianism and symbolism,[30] while in music, post-romanticism, musical nationalism and French impressionism.[42].
Modernism in Spain
Modernism in Spain was, according to Pedro Navascués, the final phase of eclecticism, with various nuances depending on the region, so, rather than modernism, one could speak of "modernisms", in plural.[43] In the architectural field, its main hallmark would be in relation to ornamentation, since at a structural level few differences are seen with the previous eclecticism and even the advances offered by engineering in the use of iron and metal are taken advantage of. steel.[44] Modernism was developed by local schools, among which, in addition to the Catalan one, the Madrid one, the Valencian one, the Murcian one, the Basque one, the Canarian one and the Melilla one stood out. In Madrid, modernism was mainly influenced by Franco-Belgian Art Nouveau, with exponents such as José Grases Riera and Eduardo Reynals. in Teruel.[46] However, Spanish modernism, characterized by a certain centrifugal seal, developed more in the periphery and the Balearic and Canary archipelagos.[47].
In the north, modernism developed mainly in industrial and tourist environments. Thus, it had an important presence in La Coruña, with authors such as Julio Galán Carvajal, Antonio López Hernández "Antonio López Hernández (architect)"), Pedro Mariño and Rafael González Villar; as well as in Santiago de Compostela - with Jesús López de Rego -, Ferrol (Rodolfo Ucha) and Vigo (Jenaro de la Fuente Domínguez, José Franco Montes).[48] In Asturias, it is worth highlighting Juan Miguel de la Guardia, Luis Bellido, Miguel García de la Cruz and Manuel del Busto.[49] The Basque Country had a notable school, starring Ricardo de Bastida, Julio Saracíbar and Ramón Cortázar Urruzola.[50].
In the Valencian Community, a modernism with a certain Catalan influence developed, since many of its architects were trained at the Barcelona School of Architecture, although with eclectic and regionalist strokes. It is worth highlighting the work of Francisco Mora Berenguer, Carlos Carbonell, Francisco Almenar, Manuel Peris Ferrando, Vicente Ferrer Pérez, Demetrio Ribes and Francisco Javier Goerlich. In addition to the city of Valencia, there were notable exponents in Novelda - with José Sala - and Alcoy, where Timoteo Briet Montaud and Vicente Pascual Pastor worked.[51] In Murcia, the main modernist nucleus was in Cartagena "Cartagena (Spain)"), where the work of Víctor Beltrí stands out.[52] In the Balearic Islands it would be appropriate to highlight Gaspar Bennazar and Francisco Roca Simó.[53].
In Andalusia, we find some modernist exponents in Seville, in the work of architects such as Aníbal González and José Espiau; and, to a lesser extent, in Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain)"), Almería, Málaga, Huelva, Cádiz and Jerez. A notable modernist school emerged in Melilla, led by Enrique Nieto, a Catalan architect who was appointed municipal architect of that city, where he developed a work that largely recalls the modernism of his native land.[54] In the Canary Islands, the main modernist center was Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where Antonio Pintor and Mariano Estanga worked.[55].
In the field of painting we do not find a style similar to that developed in Catalonia. On the one hand, academicism and naturalistic painting survive, while on the other hand, new trends from Europe are being introduced, especially impressionism and symbolism, with exponents such as Aureliano de Beruete, Darío de Regoyos - who frequented the Barcelona modernist circle of Els Quatre Gats and settled in Barcelona in 1910 -, Ignacio Zuloaga and Julio Romero de Torres.[56] In Valencia, a luminist school emerged whose main representative was Joaquín Sorolla, although the work of Ignacio Pinazo is also worth highlighting.[57].
As for sculpture, it proliferated especially in relation to funerary and commemorative monuments, as well as free-standing sculpture and that applied to architecture.[58] It is worth highlighting the Valencian Mariano Benlliure, a prolific sculptor who showed a special predilection for bullfighting and animal themes. Miguel Ángel Trilles was the author of several figures in the Monument to Alfonso XII "Monumento a Alfonso XII (Madrid)"). Francisco Durrio and Nemesio Mogrobejo worked in Bilbao.[59].
In literature, a movement called modernism existed at this time, although without connection with contemporary Catalan literature. Two fundamental lines are perceived: the first, in contrast to the previous realism, focuses on aestheticism, on the search for beauty, as well as the rare, the exotic, the bohemian, with a non-conformist component, challenging the surrounding reality; The second, however, is dedicated to studying the causes of the decline, to delve into the problems of Spain, thereby taking root with the previous realism, but with a desire for renewal. Over time, the first would be called modernism itself, while the second would be known as the Generation of '98.[60] The modernist line was developed especially in poetry, where the influence of symbolism and French Parnassianism is denoted, as well as Edgar Allan Poe, Oscar Wilde and Walt Whitman, with representatives such as Salvador Rueda, Francisco Villaespesa and Eduardo Marquina, as well as the initial work of Antonio and Manuel Machado, Ramón María del Valle-Inclán and Juan Ramón Jiménez.[61].
The music was linked to musical nationalism, of which several Catalan musicians were exponents, such as Felipe Pedrell, Isaac Albéniz and Enrique Granados, along with whom it is worth highlighting Manuel de Falla, Ruperto Chapí, Tomás Bretón, Joaquín Rodrigo and Joaquín Turina. Falla, one of the best modern Spanish composers, combined musical nationalism—with some influence from the Norwegian Edvard Grieg—with impressionism, which he encountered during a stay in France.[62].
General characteristics
Modernism is not a univocal concept. Specialists do not agree on what the common link of the so-called modernist artists is: it could be a style, or an attitude, or perhaps an era. The problem of ascribing modernist art as a style is that of bringing together works by very different artists, sometimes even opposing ones, although a certain homogeneity is perceived in the desire for renewal, in the concept of a "modern" art that overcomes tradition. That is why we speak of "attitude", the will to overcome the norms of the past and enter modernity. Finally, there is a feeling of time, of transition between two centuries that must entail an evolution of art, without breaking with the art of the past, but creating something new, a new art at the service of a new society.[64].
The term "modernism" (in Catalan: modernisme) comes from the word "modern", from the Latin modernus ("recently", in reference to the present time and as a contrast to the past, the "old").[65] The demand for the present also implies the future to come and is associated with concepts such as the "new" or the "young", as well as, in a broader and almost metaphorical sense, "freedom".[66] The first time the concept of "modernist" arose was in the magazine L'Avenç in January 1884, in an article by Ramón D. Perés, in which he stated that "L'Avenç defends (and will always try to carry out) the cultivation in our country of essentially modernist literature, science and art [underlined in the original], the only means that, in conscience, it believes can make us cared for and let us live a splendid life. "[67] It should be noted that the term modernism in relation to Catalan art refers only to the artistic production and cultural environment of the Principality in these years and cannot be extrapolated to other periods or regions. Thus, it should not be confused with other "modernisms": Spanish literary modernism "Modernism (literature in Spanish)") which, although almost contemporary, is based on technical and stylistic bases and principles that are well differentiated from Catalan modernism; theological modernism, a doctrine that advocated the integration of religion with modern science and philosophy; or the English term modernism "Modernism (philosophical and cultural movement)"), alluding to a philosophical and cultural trend that advocates the progress of art and culture in accordance with the new industrial era.[68].
It is difficult to establish precise dates to chronologically frame this movement. Some experts place its starting point at the Barcelona Universal Exhibition "Exposition Universal de Barcelona (1888)") of 1888,[69] others in the year of the beginning of the Modernist Festivals sponsored by Santiago Rusiñol in Sitges (1892).[70] As for its end, the Tragic Week "Semana Trágica (Spain)") of 1909 is usually established as a turning point, or or the appearance of Noucentisme - the style inherited from modernism - in 1911. According to Josep Francesc Ràfols, Catalan modernism would be situated between the exhibition of Ramón Casas, Santiago Rusiñol and Enric Clarasó held in 1890 and the death of Isidro Nonell in 1911, in the artistic field; from the Liceo bomb (1893) to the Tragic Week (1909) in the political sphere; and between the Universal Exhibition of 1888 and the founding of the Institute of Catalan Studies in 1907, at a social level.[71] Even so, some experts such as Mireia Freixa speak of a "protomodernism" that goes back to 1876 - coinciding with the founding of the Barcelona School of Architecture - or of a duration of modernism until 1917, coexisting with the first Noucentisme, although This would be more evident in the field of architecture, while the plastic arts and literature would have already been surpassed in 1905.[72] On the other hand, in the field of architecture, Pedro Navascués speaks of a "pre-modernism" for works prior to 1900, while he places between 1900 and 1914 the most decisive period of modernist architecture in Catalonia, which would ultimately last until the years 1920.[73] Juan Bassegoda also speaks of a pre-modernism, while he places the fullness of modernism between 1893 and 1910, which would be followed by a period of progressive abandonment of the style - he speaks of a second and even a third modernism (or "mannerist" phase).[74] For his part, Alexandre Cirici places the birth of modernism between 1880 and 1885, the years in which they were built five emblematic buildings: the Vicens house by Antoni Gaudí, the Editorial Montaner y Simón by Lluís Domènech i Montaner, the Academy of Sciences by José Doménech Estapá, the Francesc Vidal Art Industries by José Vilaseca and the Víctor Balaguer Library Museum by Jeroni Granell i Mundet (in Villanueva i Geltrú).[75] Oriol Bohigas places the end of modernist architecture in 1926, date of Gaudí's death.[76] Finally, George Collins places it between 1870 and 1930, although within a broader framework of what he calls Catalan Movement.[76] However, already in 1912 Lluís Masriera, in his entrance speech to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Jorge, said that "modern art, which had been baptized with the name of Modernism is in full decline or, as it is commonly said, it has gone out of fashion.
Catalan modernism was a heterogeneous movement, with a desire for innovation and original creation, which sought to bring together all the arts in an instrument at the service of a new, modern and cosmopolitan society, linked to the new European currents.[70] Starting from the cultural renaissance initiated by the Renaixença, they sought to create a national style, but modern, avant-garde, with a spirit of progress and positivist optimism.[78] Thus, the vindication of its own identity will cause Catalan modernism to incorporate into its artistic heritage styles from the past such as Gothic and Baroque, rejected, however, by European Art Nouveau in its desire to leave the past behind. In 1902, the critic Raimon Casellas still defended Gothic as the main reference of Catalan architecture in the magazine *Hispania "Hispania (Barcelona)").[79].
It could be said that the common link within Catalan modernism is the regenerative desire and the cosmopolitan vision of art and culture, but beyond this there is no stylistic unity, but within the modernist movement diverse languages are perceived, without regulations, without homogeneity, simply describing as modernist the work developed by the artists, musicians and writers who work in Catalonia during the transition of the centuries -. In any case, the starting point is the desire for regeneration, modernization, and internationalization of Catalan art and culture, in opposition to previous styles such as naturalism "Naturalism (art)") and academic art - or such as costumbrismo and anecdotism within the artistic panorama of the rest of Spain -, while revaluing the past considered most splendid by Catalan historiography, that corresponding to the Middle Ages. Therefore, in contrast to the international Art Nouveau, which rejected historicism, Catalan modernism combines modernity with the evocation of the past, always in neomedievalist lines.[72] The creation of a style considered national, which based on tradition had adopted the modern forms developed in Europe, is captured in these words by Josep Puig i Cadafalch expressed in 1902: «we have together achieved a modern art, from our traditional art, adorning it with beautiful new materials, adapting the national spirit to the needs of the day.
The main promoter of this movement, especially in the architectural field, was the bourgeoisie, a group of businessmen, bankers, manufacturers, investors and nobles of a new kind - as well as the indianos, the men who had become rich in America and who had transferred their fortune back to Catalonia - who promoted the new style as a hallmark. The majority of patrons of modernist artists came from this social stratum, supported by the economic boom that was experienced in those years. Among these bourgeois, the custom arose of building houses in the new Barcelona Eixample, which competed for their design and ostentation, with which they demonstrated their distinction.[81] Thus, a patronage arose that was decisive for the building work in the city, such as that exercised by Count Eusebio Güell towards Gaudí, or the businessman Antonio López y López (Marquis of Comillas), the bookseller José María Bocabella, the industrialist Josep Batlló, the businessman Pedro Milá, the textile manufacturer Avelino Trinxet Pujol, the baron Manuel de Quadras, the textile industrialist Josep Freixa, the chocolate industrialist Antoni Amatller, the pharmaceutical industrialist Salvador Andreu, the publisher Ramón de Montaner Vila, the wine businessman Manuel Raventós (from the Codorníu cava), the banker Ruperto Garriga-Nogués, the doctor Alberto He read Morera and a long etcetera.[82].
One of the greatest promoters and theorists of Catalan modernism was Santiago Rusiñol, promoter of the Modernist Festivals that were held annually in Sitges, attended by writers and artists with similar cultural and aesthetic interests.[70] Painter and writer, Rusiñol was one of the main promoters of the movement, which he intended not only to promote among the most academic sectors, but also among the popular classes, to make it the main reference for Catalan culture.[83] The first Modernist Festival was held in August 1892, on the occasion of an exhibition featuring works by Rusiñol, Ramón Casas, Eliseo Meifrén, Joaquim de Miró, Arcadio Mas and Juan Roig y Soler. The second occurred in September of the following year, with a concert by Enric Morera and the premiere at the Prado Theater of the opera La intrusa, a work by Maurice Maeterlinck translated into Catalan by Pompeu Fabra. The third took place in November 1894, with several events, among which the highlight was a procession held between the Sitges railway station and the Cau Ferrat—Rusiñol's house—with two works by El Greco acquired by Rusiñol in Paris: The Tears of Saint Peter "The Tears of Saint Peter (El Greco and his workshop)") and Saint Magdalena Penitente "Magdalena Penitente (El Greco, Sitges)"). On this occasion, Rusiñol declaimed a speech in which he defended a "modernism without scholastic dogmas or doctrinaireism, neither rules nor exceptions, neither regulations nor statutes, nor imperative mandates." The fourth occurred in February 1897, with the premiere of the opera La fada by Enric Morera at the Prado Theater. The fifth and last occurred in 1899, with the presentation of several plays by Ignasi Iglesias (Lladres and La Reina del Cor) and a text by Rusiñol himself, L'alegria que passa, as well as a piano concert by Joaquín Nin.[84].
On the other hand, the café-restaurant Els Quatre Gats could be considered one of the nerve centers of modernism, a meeting place for a good part of the modernist group, located in the Casa Martí, a neo-Gothic building designed by Josep Puig i Cadafalch, on Montsió street, in the Gothic quarter of Barcelona. It was founded in 1897 by Ramón Casas, Santiago Rusiñol, Miquel Utrillo and Pere Romeu—who ran the business—and lasted until 1903, the year it closed its doors. Here a gathering was formed, attended by artists and writers such as Isidro Nonell, Joaquín Mir, Ramón Pichot, Ricard Canals, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa, Jaime Sabartés, Ricardo Opisso, Joaquín Torres García, Pompeyo Gener, Joan Maragall, Amadeo Vives, Isaac Albéniz, Pablo Gargallo and Manolo Hugué, as well as a young Pablo Picasso, settled in the City. Condal in 1895. In addition to these gatherings, concerts, exhibitions, poetry recitals, puppet performances and shadow plays were held at the venue.[85] On the other hand, a magazine titled Els Quatre Gats, directed by Pere Romeu, was published, which came out between February and May 1899, with a total of fifteen issues.[86].
Another driving center of the movement was the Círculo Artístico de San Lucas, founded in 1893.[87] Linked largely to Catholicism, its greatest theorist was José Torras y Bages, bishop of Vic and representative figure of conservative Catalanism, within which Antoni Gaudí, a good friend of Torras, also participated. The Circle opposed the values of the bourgeoisie, but also bohemia, materialism as well as aestheticism and instead defended spirituality and tradition, unionism and artisanal work, with the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, the Nazarenes "Nazarenes (art)") and Arts and Crafts.[88].
On the other hand, the magazine L'Avenç was the spokesperson for the movement, published between 1881-1884 and 1889-1893. Founded by Jaume Massó, it followed a modern, progressive and Catalan line, with the desire to homologate and standardize the Catalan language, which they wanted to strip of archaizing elements. Within this magazine, the name "modernism" was forged, initially applied to the renewing attitude of the Catalan intellectual elite and which, shortly, would go from being a generic word to a specific one, which would already designate the new style developed in the Principality. This change, according to Francesc Fontbona, would occur at the time when Catalan modernism connected with symbolism, the new European style at the end of the century, in which art is immersed in spirituality, in aestheticism, in what could be defined as a "religion of art." The artist becomes the priest of this new religion, which worships beauty and refinement, as opposed to the materialism of the industrial age. Within the magazine, one of its greatest theorists was Raimon Casellas.[89] Another magazine that served as a disseminator of the new art was Pèl & Ploma, published between 1899 and 1903, years in which they published about one hundred issues. It was financed by Ramón Casas and its main editor was Miquel Utrillo. This was followed by Forma, between 1904 and 1908, also directed by Utrillo.[90] In addition to Casellas and Utrillo, other art critics of the modernist era were: Alfredo Opisso, Manuel Rodríguez Codolá, Bonaventura Bassegoda i Amigó, Francesc Casanovas, Juan Brull, José María Jordá, Sebastià Junyent, Frederic Pujulà, Miguel Sarmiento and Eugenio d'Ors.[91].
In terms of teaching, the greatest driving center of modernist art was the Escuela de la Lonja, sponsored by the Board of Trade of Barcelona.[92] Regarding the exhibition of works, it is worth highlighting the Sala Parés, founded in 1840 by Joan Baptista Parés and which soon became the most active art gallery in the Principality.[93] In fact, one of the starting points of the new movement, in addition to the Universal Exhibition of 1888, was the exhibition held in 1890 in the Sala Parés by Ramón Casas, Santiago Rusiñol and Enric Clarasó. All of these artists had spent time in Paris and had been infected by its bohemian atmosphere, as well as the work of artists such as Gustave Moreau or Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, as well as English Pre-Raphaeliteism or even Japanese woodcut. The exhibition represented a strong upheaval within the Catalan artistic scene due to the modernity and expressiveness of the works, which offered a nuanced vision of reality, subjective and aestheticized, interpreted by the artist according to his interiority with expression of feeling, a view far removed from the naturalism prevailing until then.[94].
Another driving force behind the new style were the official exhibitions: in 1890, the Commission for the Conservation of Park Buildings and the Creation and Promotion of Municipal Museums was created by the Barcelona City Council, with the aim of preserving the infrastructure created for the Universal Exhibition of 1888. One of the initiatives of said commission was the holding of artistic exhibitions in order to acquire works for the city's museums. Thus, in 1891 the I General Exhibition of Fine Arts was held, with sections on architecture, sculpture, painting, drawing and graphic arts. In the Second Exhibition (1894) sections of engraving, scenography and decorative painting were added. At the same time, in 1892 the First National Exhibition of Artistic Industries was held, with sections on metal, ceramics and glass, cabinetmaking and fabrics. In 1896 the two merged and the Third Exhibition of Fine Arts and Artistic Industries was held, a formula that was consolidated in the following competitions: the IV in 1898, the V in 1907 - henceforth called the International Exhibition - and the VI in 1911.[95].
It is worth noting the importance that the island of Mallorca had within Catalan modernism, especially for landscape painters. The Balearic island combined a still pure landscape with all the comforts of progress in terms of accommodation and transportation. For the Catalans it was a usual place of rest and escape from the urban world. Thus, artists such as Santiago Rusiñol, Eliseo Meifrén, Joaquín Mir, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa, Alexandre de Riquer, Sebastià Junyer, Mariano Pidelaserra, Eveli Torent and Félix Mestres spent long stays on the island. At the same time, the Mallorcan media - such as the newspaper La Almudaina - echoed the artistic developments of the Principality, which also had an impact on Mallorcan artists.[96].
Noucentisme replaced modernism around 1910, a classicist and Mediterranean movement promoted by the writer Eugenio d'Ors, opposed to everything he considered the ornamental excesses of modernism, against what defended the purity of classical lines, stripped of subterfuges, simple and sober lines. Some modernist artists, especially the younger ones, joined the new movement, such as Isidro Nonell, Joaquín Mir, Ricard Canals, Pablo Gargallo or Pablo Picasso; or, among the architects, Enric Sagnier, Josep Maria Pericas, Arnau Calvet, Ignasi Mas, Josep Domènech i Mansana, as well as some disciples of Gaudí, such as Juan Rubió or Cèsar Martinell.[97] The Noucentistas were so furiously opposed to the modernists that in some cases they even destroyed their works, such as the sculptures by Eusebi Arnau that decorated the ground floor of the house. Lleó Morera - the work of Lluís Domènech i Montaner -, removed in the reform directed by Raimundo Durán Reynals in 1943, which were destroyed with hammer blows.[98] In the 1920s some architects even requested the demolition of the Palace of Catalan Music.[99] A good example are also the modernist shops: in their day, shops and houses were created with equal profusion in the new style - both bars and restaurants as well as shops, pharmacies, bakeries and all types of establishments - but most have disappeared over time: in the 1960s there were about eight hundred - according to an estimate by architect David Mackay - until they are currently reduced to about fifty. Among those that have disappeared, some are as emblematic as the Bar Torino, designed by Gaudí together with Pedro Falqués and Josep Puig i Cadafalch.[100].
The fall from grace of modernism lasted several decades, until in the 1960s it was vindicated by a new generation of architects, critics and experts, such as Oriol Bohigas —author in 1968 of the work Modernist Architecture—, who saw in it a genuinely Catalan movement with undeniable virtues, both artistic and theoretical.[101] In fact, years and even decades before, some voices had already emerged in defense of modernism. Catalan, perhaps the first that of Salvador Dalí, author in 1932 of an article in the magazine Minotaure entitled De la Beauté térrifiant et edible de l'Arquitecture Nouveau Style. In 1936, Nikolaus Pevsner briefly cited Gaudí in his work Pioneers of modern design, from William Morris to Walter Gropius, in whose second edition, already in 1957, he regretted not having treated him more extensively, since he considered him "the most significant architect of Art Nouveau." Later, works such as Modernism and modernists, by Josep Francesc Ràfols (1949); Catalan modernist art, by Alexandre Cirici (1951); Art Nouveau, by Stephan Tschudi-Madsen (1956); Architecture, centuries and, by Henry-Russell Hitchcock (1958); Art Nouveau-Jugendstil, by Robert Schutzler (1962); The first Catalan modernism and its ideological foundations, by Eduardo Valentí (1973); Aspects of modernism, by Joan Lluís Marfany (1975); and The crisis of artistic modernism, by Francesc Fontbona (1975), to name a few—apart from the already mentioned Bohigas—[102].
To the same extent, various exhibitions that took place since the 1960s revalued the movement, such as Art Nouveau-Art and Design at the Turn of the Century, held in 1960 at the MoMA in New York; Sumptuary arts in Barcelona modernism, in the Palacio de la Virreina in Barcelona (1964); and Modernism in Spain, in the Casón del Buen Retiro in Madrid (1969).[103].
Architecture
Contenido
La arquitectura modernista se desarrolló en diversas fases: el primer modernismo, desarrollado en los años 1890, era todavía un estilo no especialmente definido, cuyo principal componente era un goticismo abarrocado desligado ya del historicismo, con pervivencia de ciertos rasgos clasicistas y medievalistas, practicado principalmente por Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Josep Puig i Cadafalch y Antoni Maria Gallissà.[104] En estos primeros años había un cierto sentimiento de indefinición, como se muestra en la obra Arquitectura moderna de Barcelona (1897), de Francesc Rogent, donde defiende la utilización del «estilo neogreco» para edificios públicos, «neogótico» para edificios particulares y «neorrománico» para iglesias.[105] Al mismo tiempo, se seguía practicando una arquitectura academicista ajena a las innovaciones modernistas, como se ve en la obra de arquitectos como Salvador Viñals, Cayetano Buigas, Joan Baptista Pons i Trabal o Francisco de Paula del Villar y Carmona.[106].
Con el cambio de siglo, el modernismo evolucionó hacia un cierto formalismo estilístico de influencia secesionista, practicado por una segunda generación de arquitectos como Josep Maria Jujol, Manuel Raspall, Josep Maria Pericas, Eduard Maria Balcells, Salvador Valeri, Alexandre Soler, Antoni de Falguera, Bernardí Martorell y otros.[107] Estos arquitectos planteaban la arquitectura como soporte de una exultante ornamentación, entrando en una fase manierista del modernismo.[108] Por otro lado, continuaron las tendencias neogóticas y del eclecticismo clasicista, practicadas principalmente por Enric Sagnier, José Doménech Estapá, Manuel Comas i Thos, Augusto Font Carreras o Joan Josep Hervàs.[109] Según Juan Bassegoda, esta fase manierista tuvo tres corrientes principales: la vinculada a la Escuela de Arquitectura de Barcelona, es decir, los discípulos de Domènech, Vilaseca, Font Carreras y Gallissà; los discípulos de Gaudí; y los influidos por la arquitectura europea, principalmente francesa, inglesa y austríaca. Pese a todo, no se trataría de líneas rígidas y alguno de ellos se podría encontrar en varias corrientes a la vez.[110].
El epicentro de la arquitectura modernista catalana se produjo en Barcelona y algunas ciudades del entorno, en menor medida en las otras provincias catalanas. Entre otras razones, conviene recordar la presencia en esta ciudad de la Escuela de Arquitectura, donde se formaron la mayoría de arquitectos modernistas.[111] Esta institución supuso la instauración en la Ciudad Condal de una «escuela» —en su sentido artístico— con unos parámetros comunes a toda una serie de arquitectos, que vino a sustituir a una generación anterior que debía contentarse con el título de maestro de obras o bien formarse en arquitectura en Madrid.[112] Por otro lado, un factor determinante del desarrollo del nuevo estilo fue el Ensanche de Barcelona, trazado por Ildefonso Cerdá en 1859, que favoreció enormemente la labor edilicia de la ciudad, al facilitar unos terrenos donde construir desde cero.[113] Pese a todo, así como los diversos modernismos regionales surgidos en España fueron esencialmente inconexos entre sí, en el seno del modernismo catalán es difícil encontrar un nexo común a todos los arquitectos, que mayormente desarrollaron un estilo propio y personal.[nota 4].
Las raíces del modernismo arquitectónico se encuentran en el Romanticismo, ya que, más allá de su estructura funcional, la relevancia otorgada al diseño y la ornamentación, el carácter suntuoso de su decoración y la consideración de obra de arte total se enmarcan en las corrientes románticas que surgieron a comienzos del siglo , alejadas del academicismo clasicista o del formalismo ecléctico.[114] Así, en el modernismo influyeron poderosamente movimientos como el neogótico —especialmente gracias a la aportación teórica de Viollet-le-Duc—, así como el exotismo, la inspiración en culturas lejanas, especialmente de Oriente, con preferencia en España, dado su pasado andalusí, del neomudéjar.[115].
Cabe señalar que la arquitectura modernista no comportó nada nuevo a nivel estructural, ninguna solución constructiva original, de hecho sus plantas y secciones son indistinguibles de cualquier edificio anterior. Su novedad revistió en el exterior, la fachada, así como en la decoración interior, en el uso de las artes aplicadas para elaborar un producto unitario, una obra de arte total. En ese terreno, su principal fuente de inspiración fue la naturaleza, aunque una naturaleza idealizada y magnificada.[116].
La arquitectura modernista catalana es difícilmente equiparable a la europea —ya sea francobelga o austríaca—, ya que no presenta rasgos estilísticos comunes y es esencialmente una aportación original. De ello eran conscientes los propios arquitectos, como se denota en estas palabras de Josep Puig i Cadafalch: «entre todos hemos construido un arte moderno, a partir de nuestro arte tradicional, adornándolo con bellas materias nuevas, adaptando el espíritu nacional a las necesidades del día».[117].
En 1997 se creó la Ruta del Modernismo en Barcelona, gracias a una iniciativa del Ayuntamiento de esta ciudad, que incluye los edificios más emblemáticos construidos en este estilo, en total unas 120 obras.[118] Para señalizar la ruta, se colocaron en el pavimento en varios puntos de la ciudad unas baldosas de color rojo con la flor de Barcelona, un diseño de baldosa de Josep Puig i Cadafalch para la casa Amatller que posteriormente fue utilizado en numerosas calles de la ciudad y se ha convertido en un símbolo de la Ciudad Condal.[119].
Premodernism
Some architects evolved from historicism to modernism, with varying degrees of assimilation of the new style, although in general terms a certain continuity with previous forms continued to be evident in their works. As has been seen, the new style had its raison d'être in decoration, while it did not contribute anything new at a structural level, which is why many architects of the generation before the modernist were able to venture into the new aesthetic without excessively abandoning their construction method already consolidated over the years.[120] In fact, numerous architects followed a more personal than stylistic trajectory, which is why it is difficult to give the label of modernist to this or that architect and, often, it is done simply because they coincide in time. and place. Gaudí, for example, began with a certain historicism to evolve to a particular and unique style, a style inspired by nature—organicist therefore—hardly comparable to any other architect.[121] Another case is José Doménech Estapá, an architect with a classical and solemn line who was even quite bellicose against modernism, but whose work falls within this period.[122].
At the time of the gestation of modernism, various currents were appreciated: one led by José Vilaseca, with the influence of German architecture, with more sober and regular lines, in whose wake one could place Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Josep Font i Gumà and Antoni Maria Gallissà; another starring Joan Martorell, framed in a neo-Gothic with Violletian roots for religious works and in a French-influenced classicism for civil works, which Gaudí, Cristóbal Cascante and Camilo Oliveras would follow; Pia Batlló house (1891-1896), Enric Batlló house (1892-1896), Àngel Batlló house (1893-1896), Cabot houses (1901-1905), Dolors Calm house (1903) and Comas d'Argemir house (1903-1904), in Barcelona. He was the author of the Arc de Triomphe of Barcelona, built for the Universal Exhibition of 1888.[125] Joan Martorell was a historicist architect, with a preference for medievalism, who nevertheless introduced modernist decoration in some of his works. Among his achievements, the Salesas church "Church and convent of the Salesas (Barcelona)") (1885), the Mercantile Credit Society (1896-1900) and the Güell palace in Pedralbes in Barcelona stand out, as well as the Sobrellano palace in Comillas (Cantabria) "Comillas (Cantabria)"). He was Gaudí's mentor, whom he recommended for the Sagrada Familia temple.[126] Augusto Font Carreras was a disciple of Elías Rogent and developed an eclectic style inspired by neo-Gothic and neo-Arabic; Among his works, the following stand out: the Les Heures palace (1894-1898), the Las Arenas bullring (1902), the headquarters of the Barcelona Savings Bank in the Plaza de San Jaime (1903) and the Casa de la Caridad church (1912).[127].
It is also worth mentioning other architects who coincided in their middle or final stages with the emergence of modernism: José Doménech Estapá captured in his works a premodernism of a personal, eclectic, functional and grandiloquent nature.[128] He was the author of the Barcelona Model Prison (with Salvador Viñals, 1887-1904), the Montaner Palace (current Government Delegation in Catalonia, 1889-1893, completed by Antoni Maria Gallissà and Lluís Domènech i Montaner), the Catalana de Gas building (1895-1896), the Santa Lucía Asylum (later Science Museum, 1904-1909), the Fabra Observatory (1904-1906), the Clinical Hospital (1904), the church-convent of Our Lady del Carmen (1909-1921) and the Magoria Station (1912).[129] Pedro Falqués was municipal architect of Barcelona, for which he participated in numerous urban improvements in the city; He was the author of the Clot market (1889), the Canaletas fountain (1892), the Ensanche Mayor's Office (1893), the Catalan Electricity Central (1896-1897), the benches-lampposts on Paseo de Gracia (1900), the Laribal house (1902), the Bonaventura Ferrer house (1905-1906) and the Sants market (1913).[130] Antonio Rovira y Trías was the municipal architect of Barcelona, winner of the competition called by the City Council for the new expansion of the city, although finally the Ministry of Public Works imposed Ildefonso Cerdá's project. For the Universal Exhibition of 1888 he built the Martorell Museum. He was the author of several municipal markets, such as Hostafrancs (1888), where he showed an incipient modernism.[131] Emilio Sala Cortés was equally historicist with the introduction of some modernist ornamental elements, especially in the multiple summer villas he built for the bourgeoisie. His works include: the Emilia Carles house in Barcelona (1892), the Tolrà palace in Castellar del Vallés (1890), the Rocafort house in La Garriga (1910) and the Ribas Schools in Rubí (1916). He was also the author of the Paseo de Gracia building No. 43, which was later renovated by Gaudí and converted into the Casa Batlló.[132] Cayetano Buigas was chief architect of the Universal Exhibition of 1888, for which he also designed the Columbus Monument "Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)"), with sculpture by Rafael Atché. It was framed in eclecticism, with some modernist influence, as seen in the Vichy Catalán Spa, in Caldas de Malavella (1898-1904). In Sitges he was the author of the Municipal Market (1889) and the Bonaventura Blai house (1900).[133].
Lluís Domènech i Montaner
Lluís Domènech i Montaner created a mixture of constructive rationalism and fabulous decoration with the influence of Spanish-Islamic architecture.[134] He was the creator of what he called "national architecture",[note 5] an eclectic style based on new techniques and materials, with a modern and international desire. To do this, he was inspired by architects such as Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Gottfried Semper.[136] In his work he sought constructive and aesthetic unity, with clear and ordered approaches, through a rational system that assumed decorativeness as an essential part of the work.[137] He was a professor at the Barcelona School of Architecture since its foundation in 1875 and, from 1900 to 1920, its director. He was also president of the Ateneo Barcelonés, journalist - director of the newspaper El Poble Català -, heraldist and politician, being president of the Lliga de Catalunya and the Catalan Union, as well as a deputy in Madrid in 1904.[135].
His most relevant works were the Hospital de la Santa Cruz y San Pablo (1902-1913, completed by his son Pere Domènech i Roura) and the Palace of Catalan Music (1905-1908), both declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 1997. The first is a vast hospital complex inherited from the old Hospital de la Santa Cruz, which occupies nine blocks of Ensanche, with a set of forty-six pavilions. arranged in parallel and diagonal according to the distribution in the room to have the optimal solar orientation. They are autonomous pavilions separated by interstitial spaces, although connected by underground galleries, of which the administration pavilion, the assembly hall, the library, the secretariat, the church and the convalescent room stand out.[138] In this work, applied arts take on special relevance, such as sculpture—with works by Eusebi Arnau and Pablo Gargallo—, mosaic, tiles and stained glass.[139].
The Palace of Catalan Music is a building articulated around the large central hall, oval in shape and with capacity for two thousand spectators. Inside it has three sections, the entrance, the auditorium and the stage, with a lavish decoration with ceramic coverings and a large central skylight that covers the room, made of colored glass, in addition to various sculptures by Eusebi Arnau and Pablo Gargallo. The main façade covers the chamfer of Amadeu Vives and Sant Pere més Alt streets, with large access arches and a balcony that surrounds the entire façade, with columns covered in ceramic and topped by a mosaic dome, where the sculptural group of The Popular Song, by Miguel Blay, stands out.[140].
Also worth highlighting is the Lleó Morera house (1905), a renovation of a building built in 1864, whose location on a chamfer determined the prominence of the corner, where the main stand is located and is finished off vertically with a small temple; Each floor has a different design, where the ornamental work stands out - with sculptures by Eusebi Arnau -, partially mutilated in a renovation of the ground floor carried out in 1943.[141] The interior was profusely decorated with sculptures by Eusebi Arnau, stained glass windows by Antoni Rigalt, furniture by Gaspar Homar and other elements.[142].
Antoni Gaudi
One of the greatest representatives of Catalan modernism was Antoni Gaudí, an architect with an innate sense of geometry and volume, as well as a great imaginative capacity that allowed him to mentally project most of his works before transferring them to plans. Endowed with a strong intuition and creative capacity, Gaudí conceived his buildings in a global way, taking into account both structural solutions and functional and decorative ones, also integrating artisanal work, and introduced new techniques in the treatment of materials, such as his famous trencadís, made with pieces of waste ceramics. After beginnings influenced by neo-Gothic art, as well as certain orientalizing tendencies, Gaudí led to modernism in its most effervescent period, although he went beyond orthodox modernism, creating a personal style based on the observation of nature, the fruit of which was his use of regulated geometric shapes, such as the hyperbolic paraboloid, the hyperboloid, the helicoid "Helix (geometry)") and the conoid "Cone". (geometry)").[148].
His first achievements, both during his student period and the first executed upon obtaining his degree, stand out for the great precision of the details, the use of superior geometry and the preponderance of mechanical considerations in the calculation of structures.[149] From this period, the streetlights of the Plaza Real "Farolas de la Plaza Real (Barcelona)") (1878) and the Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense (1878-1882) stand out, as well as the beginning of the works of what would be his magnum opus, the Expiatory Temple of the Sagrada Familia (1883).[150].
Later he went through an orientalist stage, with a series of works with a marked oriental taste, inspired by the art of the Near and Far East, as well as by Hispanic Islamic art, mainly Mudejar and Nasrid. He used ceramic tile decoration with great profusion, as well as the mitral arches "Arco (construction)"), exposed brick cartouches and finials in the shape of a temple or dome. the Güell pavilions (1884-1887), the Güell palace (1886-1888) and the pavilion of the Transatlantic Company for the Universal Exhibition of 1888. The house for the stockbroker Manuel Vicens was his first important work, a house with three facades and a large garden, with a monumental brick fountain and a fence wall with a cast iron fence decorated with palmetto leaves, one of his most iconic; The house is finished with chimneys and towers in the form of temples.[152] The Güell Palace was the first important commission of its patron, Eusebio Güell, for whom he designed a house with a monumental entrance with magnificent doors with parabolic arches and openwork wrought iron bars; Inside, the hall stands out, which has a height of three floors and forms the central core of the building, with a roof with a double dome with a paraboloid profile on the inside and a conical profile on the outside.[153].
He then went through a neo-Gothic period, in which he was inspired above all by medieval Gothic art, which he assumed freely, personally, trying to improve its structural solutions; In his works he eliminates the need for buttresses by using ruled surfaces and eliminates crests and excessive openwork. Garraf "Garraf (Sitges)") (1895-1897) and the Bellesguard tower (1900-1909). The latter was built on the ruins of an old summer palace of King Martin I the Human, with a building with a square plan with the vertices oriented to the four cardinal points, topped by a truncated conical tower crowned with the four-armed cross.[155].
Josep Puig i Cadafalch
Josep Puig i Cadafalch adapted modernism to certain influences of Nordic and Flemish Gothic, as well as elements of traditional rural Catalan architecture, with a strong presence of applied arts and stuccos.[192] A disciple of Domènech i Montaner, he was an architect, archaeologist, historian, professor and politician.[193] He was president of the Commonwealth of Catalonia (1917-1924), a position from which which promoted the creation of various professional schools (Nursing, Commerce, Textile Industries), scientific entities (Institute of Catalan Studies) and cultural (National Museum of Art of Catalonia, Library of Catalonia).[194].
It went through various stages: in the 1890s, a certain flamboyant Germanism, which Alexandre Cirici called the "pink era" (Martí house or Els Quatre Gats, 1895-1896; Amatller house, 1898-1900; Macaya house, 1899-1901; Baron de Quadras palace, 1899-1906; Terrades or les Punxes house, 1903-1905); in the 1900s a Mediterranean style or "white era" (Trinxet house, 1902-1904; Can Serra, headquarters of the Barcelona Provincial Council, 1903-1908; Sastre Marquès house, 1905; Muntadas house, 1910; Pere Company house, 1911); and, from the 1910s, a classicism with a secessionist influence that would lead to Noucentisme, its "yellow age" (Muley-Afid house, 1911-1914; Casaramona factory, current Caixa Fòrum, 1915-1939; Rosa Alemany house, 1928-1930), with the influence of the Chicago School "Chicago School (architecture)") (Pich i Pon house, 1919-1921) and with a drift towards a certain monumentalist baroque style (palaces of Alfonso XIII and Victoria Eugenia, 1923).[195].
Among these achievements it is worth highlighting the Amatller house and the Terrades house. The first presents a neo-Gothic-looking façade, with three different parts: a stone plinth with two doors on the left side, creating an asymmetric effect; a central body with sgraffito walls and ornamentation of floral motifs, with an upper gallery reminiscent of that of the chapel of San Jorge in the Palace of the Generalitat; and a stepped gable-shaped finish made of red and gold ceramic, with possible influence from the traditional architecture of the Netherlands.[196] The Terrades house occupies an entire block of Ensanche, with an irregular layout: it presents six facades inspired by Nordic Gothic architecture and Spanish plateresque, topped by gables, some truncated by ceramic soffits with Pre-Raphaelite style images, and flanked by six circular towers crowned with conical spiers ending in a needle, which give the building its nickname; It is built in exposed work, with sculptural ornamentation of stone and glazed ceramic, and wrought iron elements.[197].
In Mataró, his hometown, he was the author of the Parera house (1894), the Beneficencia house (1894), the Coll i Regàs house (1898) and the Puig i Cadafalch house (1897-1905).[198] In Argentona, a nearby town, he was the architect of the Garí house (1898), a building halfway between a farmhouse and a palace, medievalist, with profuse interior and exterior decoration, as denoted in the entrance porch-stand.[199] Between 1901 and 1904 he built the Cavas Codorniu buildings in San Sadurní de Noya, which denote the Gaudinian influence in the use of parabolic arches.[186].
Other modernist architects
Of the plethora of modernist architects—totally or partially—we must first mention Enric Sagnier, an architect with an eclectic style who forged a personal seal of classicist lines with great success among the Catalan bourgeois class. A prolific author, he was possibly the architect with the largest number of constructions in Barcelona, with nearly three hundred documented buildings.[200] Three stages can be distinguished in his career: before 1900 he worked with an eclectic, monumental and grandiose style; From 1900 to 1910 he moved closer to modernism, which is perceived in a greater decorative sense of his work at this time, with special influence of Rococo art; and, since 1910, he remained in a classicist style of French influence, far from the fashions of the moment.[201] Among his works, the following stand out: the Palace of Justice of Barcelona (1887-1908, with José Domènech y Estapá), the Juncadella house (1888-1889), the Pascual i Pons house (1890-1891), the Jesús-María school (1892-1897), the Customs House of the Port of Barcelona (1896-1902, with Pere Garcia Fària), the Arnús or El Pinar house (1902-1904), the Garriga Nogués house (1902-1904), the Expiatory Temple of the Sacred Heart (1902-1961), the Fargas house (1904), the church of Our Lady of Pompeii "Church of Our Lady of Pompeii (Barcelona)") (1907-1910), the Ramon Mulleras house (1910-1911), the Doctor Genové house (1911), the new church of San Juan de Horta (1911-1917), the Barcelona Pension Fund Building (1914-1917), the Basilica of San José Oriol (1915-1930) and the Ribas Board of Trustees (1920-1930).[202].
Antoni Maria Gallissà, Joan Josep Hervàs, Salvador Viñals and Francisco de Paula del Villar y Carmona also moved within this line of classicist reminiscence. Gallissà was an architect closely linked to the decorative arts, as can be seen in the Llopis Bofill house (1902), with a façade with sgraffito of Islamic motifs and balconies in the form of iron and glass tribunes.[203] Hervàs' main work was the Pérez Samanillo house, current Equestrian Circle (1910-1911), a single-family house with the appearance of a château French, which received the City Council's award for the best work of 1910.[204] Viñals practiced classicist architecture with modernist ornamentation, as evidenced in the Juncosa house (1907-1909). He built several factories and theaters, such as the Novedades Theater (1890, disappeared) and collaborated with Doménech Estapá on the Model Prison (1888-1904). He was also the author of several summer villas in coastal towns, such as the Oller house in Sitges (1891).[205] Villar y Carmona was an architect for the diocese of Barcelona, a position from which he intervened in the Montserrat Monastery, where he built the façade of the church and the chapel of the Virgin.[206] In Barcelona he built the Riera house (1892), the Gas Lebon house. (1894-1896)[207] and the Climent Arola house (1900-1902).
[208] He was also in charge of the reconstruction of the church of Santa Madrona (1915) and the Hospital de Incurables (1916). He was also the author of the parish church of San Cipriano de Tiana "Tiana (Barcelona)") (1927).
Modernist centers outside Barcelona
The Catalan capital was the city that had the most works of modernist architecture—and perhaps the most emblematic—but the movement spread throughout the Principality. Important architects who worked in the capital also carried out works outside, as is the case of Gaudí in Santa Coloma de Cervelló, Garraf "Garraf (Sitges)") or La Pobla de Lillet; by Domènech i Montaner in Reus and Canet de Mar; from Puig i Cadafalch in Mataró and Argentona; by Josep Maria Jujol in Tarragona and San Juan Despí; or Juan Rubió in Colonia Güell, Reus, Ripoll and Raimat. As the work of these authors has already been analyzed, this section will address the work of other architects limited to specific territories of the four Catalan provinces.[283].
This province is the one with the most modernist works in the Catalan territory, given its proximity to the capital, which acted as a focus of irradiation. In the immediate surroundings of Barcelona you can find modernist architecture in cities such as Hospitalet de Llobregat and Badalona. In the first one are some modernist factories, such as the Tecla Sala factory, by Claudio Durán y Ventosa (1892), or the Can Vilumara factory, by Andreu Audet (1906-1907), while Ramón Puig Gairalt, municipal architect of the city, built various modernist-type chalets at the beginning of his career - although he later leaned towards Noucentisme - as well as the Botiga Nova store. (1912), the cheap houses on Rambla Just Oliveras 77-79 (1914-1915) - which denote the secessionist influence - and the Police Station (1922). (1910) crisscrossing of horizontal lines.[286][287].
Around the capital, there is a large number of modernist works on the coastal strip, in the regions of Garraf, El Maresme and Bajo Llobregat. The main city of Garraf is Villanueva i Geltrú, where Bonaventura Pollés, who was the city's municipal architect, worked, where he developed a style tending towards monumentalism, with profuse use of iron and glass, in works such as the Villa Laguarda (1912) or the chalet of Dr. Ribot (1910).[288] His successor as municipal architect was Josep Maria Miró i Guibernau, author of the Can Pahissa or Indiano house. (1916-1921).[289] Another important town is Sitges, a relevant modernist center, since Santiago Rusiñol, promoter of the Modernist Festivals that were held in that city, settled there. Josep Pujol i Brull worked here, an eclectic architect who went through various stages, from modernism to noucentisme, author of the Pere Carreras house (1906). Elías Rogent, the father of the School of Architecture and author of the University of Barcelona, was the author of Cau Ferrat, the Rusiñol residence.[292] In Bajo Llobregat we must first highlight the work of Gaudí, Berenguer and Rubió in the Colonia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló, of Josep Maria Jujol in San Juan Despí, of Marceliano Coquillat in San Justo Desvern and of Gabriel Borrell in Sant Feliu de Llobregat, as seen previously, we must mention Josep Ros i Ros, who was municipal architect of Castellbisbal, Cervelló, Corbera de Llobregat, El Papiol, Gélida, Martorell, La Palma de Cervelló, Olesa de Montserrat, Pallejá, Piera, San Andrés de la Barca, San Sadurní de Noya and Torrellas de Noya. Llobregat,[293] towns in which he left numerous works of modernist stamp, which stand out for the profusion of ceramic and stucco elements, as well as decoration of curved or rectilinear borders.[294] He was also the author of the Jacint Bosch house in Terrassa (1912) and the Cal Sabater factory in Igualada (1912-1919).[293] In the same region it is worth mentioning the Town Hall of Viladecans, by Josep Azemar (1899); the General Water Society of Barcelona in Cornellá de Llobregat, by Josep Amargós (1905-1909); and the Artisan Center of El Prat de Llobregat, by Antoni Pascual Carretero (1919).[295]
Catalan modernism outside Catalonia
Some Catalan modernist architects left notable works outside the Principality. One of the main focuses was Comillas "Comillas (Cantabria)"), in Cantabria, the birthplace of Antonio López y López, first Marquis of Comillas, father-in-law of the Catalan businessman and patron of Gaudí, Eusebio Güell. López began important construction works in his town, for which he hired Catalan architects on the recommendation of his son-in-law. The first commission, entrusted to Joan Martorell, was for a palace and a chapel-pantheon in Sobrellano (1878-1888), built in the neo-Gothic style. Gaudí, who at that time was Martorell's assistant, designed some furniture for the chapel and sculptors such as Josep Llimona and the brothers Agapito and Venancio Vallmitjana participated in the decoration. The next commission, also from Martorell, was for a Seminar (1883-1892), where Lluís Domènech i Montaner participated in the decoration. This architect was later in charge of the construction of the town's cemetery (1890) —where the sculpture The Exterminating Angel "The Exterminating Angel (Llimona)" by Josep Llimona stands out— and a Monument to the first Marquis of Comillas (1890).[345] But the main exponent of Catalan modernism in Comillas was El Capricho "El Capricho (Gaudí)") by Gaudí (1883-1885), a tower commissioned by Máximo Díaz de Quijano, brother-in-law of Antonio López. Along with the Vicens house, it was one of the first relevant works of Gaudí, who entrusted the direction of the works to Cristóbal Cascante, a fellow student. Of oriental style, it has an elongated plan, with three levels and a cylindrical tower in the shape of a Persian minaret, completely covered in ceramic.[346].
Gaudí built two other important works outside Catalonia: the Episcopal Palace of Astorga (1889-1915) and the Botines house in León "León (Spain)") (1891-1894). The first was a commission from a clergyman who was a friend of his native Reus, Juan Bautista Grau Vallespinós, who upon being appointed bishop of Astorga commissioned Gaudí to build a palace for that city, in a neo-Gothic style.[347] The Botines house is also in a neo-Gothic style, with a sculpture on the façade of Saint George and the dragon, the work of Llorenç Matamala.[348] It is worth mentioning finally another intervention by Gaudí outside of his land: the restoration of the Cathedral of Mallorca (1903-1914), commissioned by the bishop of that city, Pere Campins. Gaudí planned a series of structural and decorative actions and modernization of the building, entrusting the works to Juan Rubió, Gaudí's assistant.[349].
Thanks to his work in the restoration of the Mallorcan cathedral, Juan Rubió carried out several projects in the Balearic Islands: the façade of the parish church of San Bartolomé de Sóller (1904-1912), the monastery of the Sagrada Familia in Manacor (1906-1908), the rosary of the sanctuary of Lluch (1909-1913, with Josep Reynés), the Casasayas house in Palma de Mallorca (1910-1911), the church of Son Servera (1910), the Bank of Sóller (1910-1912), the Miquel Benimelis house in Palma (1912-1913), the monument to Jaime III in Lluchmayor (1923) and the restoration of the cathedral of Santa María de Ciudadela (1939-1941).[350] In this part of Spain it was author of the Puig pharmacy in Azoque (Zaragoza, 1908),[350] the basilica of the Sacred Heart "Basilica del Sagrado Corazón (Gijón)") in Gijón (1910-1925)[293] and the restoration of the house of Saint Ignatius of Loyola in Azpeitia (Guipúzcoa, 1920-1921).[350].
Paint
La pintura modernista recibió influencias muy variadas, especialmente las ligadas a corrientes europeas como el impresionismo, postimpresionismo y simbolismo. Esta influencia llegó especialmente gracias a las estancias en París de numerosos artistas, como Ramón Casas y Santiago Rusiñol. Considerada en aquel entonces la meca del arte, la capital francesa era el lugar donde viajaban artistas de todo el mundo para formarse y ponerse al día en las corrientes pictóricas.[365] También ejercieron una gran influencia movimientos como la Hermandad Prerrafaelita, el Arts and Crafts, los Nazarenos "Nazarenos (arte)") y los Nabis "Nabis (artistas)"), así como, en el campo de la cultura europea en general, la filosofía de Nietzsche, la música de Wagner y el teatro de Ibsen y Maeterlinck. Barcelona se convirtió en una metrópoli europea, más ligada al continente que el resto de España.[366] También ejerció un notable influjo la revalorización producida esos años de la obra de El Greco, al que admiraban artistas como Rusiñol, Mir y Gimeno, así como Regoyos y Zuloaga a nivel nacional. Del artista cretense se valoraba especialmente el colorido de sus obras y la estilización de sus figuras. Prueba de esta actitud fue la iniciativa de Rusiñol de erigir un Monumento a El Greco en Sitges, obra de Josep Reynés (1898).[365].
Por su posición cronológica, la pintura modernista fue heredera de los movimientos artísticos del siglo , al tiempo que preludiaba las nuevas vanguardias que llegarían con el siglo . Esta posición, entre el pasado y el futuro, llevó a Josep Maria Garrut a separar a los pintores modernistas entre «recreadores con proyección de pasado» y «creadores con premoniciones de futuro».[367] Así, la pintura modernista catalana es ambigua, contradictoria, en un difícil equilibrio entre la ruptura y la continuidad, entre la tradición y el progreso.[367].
En pintura, el modernismo fue un movimiento heterogéneo, que agrupó en su seno varias tendencias estilísticas: según una clasificación de Joan Ainaud de Lasarte (El Modernismo en España, 1969), el modernismo catalán podría dividirse entre modernismo simbolista, impresionista y postimpresionista.[368] En cambio, para Francesc Fontbona (La crisis del Modernismo artístico, 1975), se darían dos corrientes principales: la modernista y la posmodernista.[369] Pese a su diversidad, son perceptibles diversos rasgos comunes en la mayoría de artistas modernistas, como podrían ser el rechazo del arte académico, el culto por la belleza y una cierta actitud social, un afán regenerador de la sociedad de su momento.[370].
Uno de los puntos de partida de la pintura modernista fue la estancia en París de Ramón Casas y Santiago Rusiñol. Pertenecientes a familias acomodadas, viajaron a la capital mundial del arte en 1890, donde se adentraron en el ambiente bohemio de Montmartre. Aquí conocieron el impresionismo, del que recibieron la influencia, especialmente, de Manet y Degas, es decir, el impresionismo más de raíz académica y no tanto de inspiración individual.[371] De vuelta a Barcelona, Casas y Rusiñol capitanearon una renovación del ambiente pictórico catalán, que incluyó a diversos artistas que se movían en torno al Círculo Artístico de Barcelona. En contrapartida al espíritu bohemio y hedonista de estos pintores, surgió una corriente de signo más conservador, tanto en lo artístico —por su conservación de un cierto sello académico—, como en lo moral —por su vinculación al catolicismo—, centrada en el Círculo Artístico de San Lucas, una asociación liderada por el obispo de Vic, José Torras y Bages y, en el terreno artístico, por Josep Llimona.[372].
Premodernism: the Luminist School of Sitges
The so-called Sitges Luminist School,[373] which emerged in this town in Garraf and was active between 1878 and 1892, is usually considered "pre-modernism". Its most prominent members were Arcadio Mas, Joaquim de Miró, Joan Batlle i Amell, Antoni Almirall and Juan Roig y Soler. In some ways opposed to the Olot School, whose painters treated the landscape of the interior of Catalonia with a softer and more filtered light, the Sitges artists opted for the warm and vibrant Mediterranean light and the atmospheric effects of the Garraf coast. Heirs largely of Mariano Fortuny, the members of this school sought to faithfully reflect the luminous effects of the surrounding landscape, in harmonious compositions that combined verism and a certain poetic and idealized vision of nature, with a subtle chromaticism and a fluid brushstroke that was sometimes described as impressionist.[374].
These artists captured with precision and detail the landscape, life and customs of this coastal town, with realism, but with a certain idealized and poetic vision of the images they captured, in which the beauty of light and a subtle chromaticism of great visual freshness stand out.[375] Subsequently, most of these artists evolved in different ways: in their later production Roig y Soler had a tendency to replace the line with the stain, reloading the material composition of their works, with a freer and more dynamic invoice; Mas approached modernism - he was a close friend of Rusiñol - and combined landscaping with interior scenes, especially in churches illuminated with baroque-looking candlelight; Miró, Batlle and Almirall largely continued with the Luminist style, although in a more personal and heterogeneous way.[376].
Houses and Rusiñol
One of the leading representatives of this movement was Santiago Rusiñol, established in 1890 in Paris together with Ramón Casas, where they entered the impressionist movement, with a special influence of Manet and Degas, that is, impressionism with a more traditional basis, with long and diffuse brushstrokes compared to the short and loose brushstrokes of the most avant-garde impressionism.[377] Friend of the sculptor Enric Clarasó, they used to go out for walks to take notes on the painting. natural, which they later transferred to their works. Together they set up a workshop at 38 Muntaner Street in Barcelona, which became famous for its gatherings, attended by young artists; known as Cau Ferrat, later this name would be that of the Rusiñol house in Sitges, center of the modernist festivals.[378][note 6].
Rusiñol had trained in naturalist painting, close to the Olot School. His most fully modernist stage occurred in the 1890s. In the first years of this decade his impressionist influence was more evident, with a color of cold tones with a preponderance of gray - as Casas would also develop -, as denoted in works such as The kitchen or the laboratory of the Moulin de la Galette (1890) or Erik Satie (1891), where the influence of Whistler is evident, especially in the figures.[380] Around 1893-1894 he evolved towards a more fully symbolist style: he abandoned realism and directed his work towards a more mythical and aestheticizing tone, almost evasionist, as denoted in his decorative ceilings for the Cau Ferrat of 1896 (Painting, Poetry, Music).[381] With the beginning of the century he moved more towards landscaping, still with a certain symbolist seal, but with a greater tendency towards realism.[382] A series of successive trips to Granada were decisive for this, where he developed a more naturalistic landscaping, with concern for composition and symmetry, as well as aesthetics and chromaticism: Staircase with Generalife fountains (1900).[383].
Ramón Casas was not fully seduced by the impressionism that he encountered in Paris - although he did denote the influence of Degas and Whistler - his work is somewhat more conservative with the pictorial tradition, but he did develop a plenairism of cold tones, with a preference for grey, as noted in Plen air "Plein Air (Ramón Casas)") (1890). In the following years he combined landscaping and scenes of social life with works of certain political content, which, however, transcended mere anecdotism due to their plastic nature and the treatment of the image, articulated with spots of color, with a veristic chromaticism that dilutes the pathos of the scenes in images reduced to the capture of an image in time, as denoted in The Vile Garrote (1894) and The Load (1899).[384].
His technique stands out for the synthetic brushstroke and the somewhat blurred line, with a theme focused preferably on interiors and outdoor images, as well as popular scenes and social demands.[385] Despite everything, Casas' modernism is superficial, his style is rather realistic, as can be seen in his female portraits, which have great pictorial quality. He was also a great draftsman, highlighting his gallery of charcoal portraits of figures of his time.[386] He also stood out as a poster artist, where he demonstrated great mastery of color and composition.[387].
Impressionist modernism
This trend was based on the influence of French impressionism, although always more attenuated and with an important substratum of realism from the Spanish naturalist school, to a greater or lesser extent depending on each artist. The preferred theme in this current was the landscape, in which heirs of the Olot School are shown, with Ramón Martí Alsina and Joaquín Vayreda as main references. Thus, in the treatment of these works, light and color are more relevant than the expression of a feeling or the symbolization of some concept, as occurs in symbolist modernism. The technique is a free brushstroke, more or less thick depending on the artist, while the color is intense, but without reaching the violence that French post-impressionism was developing in those years.[388].
Casas and Rusiñol would partially enter this current, influenced by impressionism after their stay in Paris, as well as other artists among whom we should mention in the first place Eliseo Meifrén, the greatest representative of impressionist landscaping in Catalonia. His early works are still heirs of the romantic spirit, with a certain preciousness coming from genre painting, later evolving into a free impressionism, which stands out for the softness of color and atmospheric effects. His favorite subject was the Catalan coast - especially Cadaqués -, although he also painted landscapes of Europe and America.[389].
Francisco Gimeno trained in Tortosa with Manuel Marqués and expanded his studies in Madrid with Carlos de Haes, despite which he developed a personal style, based on a dense drawing with nervous lines, a brushstroke that was also dense and somewhat rough, and a coloring dominated by reddish and saffron tones, with the presence of charcoal blacks as well, all of them put at the service of a composition based on facets of light. As for the theme, a harsh, austere, somewhat sordid background is perceived, a reflection of the painter's own life, voluntarily removed from the society of his time. In addition to landscapes—especially of the Catalan and Majorcan coast—his portraits and self-portraits stand out.[390].
Oleguer Junyent made his living mainly as a set designer, a job thanks to which he traveled all over the world. During the course of these trips he took oil notes taken from nature, a rich collection of natural views that stand out for their vivid color, with precise drawing and thick brushstrokes. His easel works are, however, more discreet and somewhat decorative, perhaps due to the influence of his theatrical activity. He was also a writer and decorator, as well as an illustrator in L'Esquella de la Torratxa.[391].
Laureano Barrau studied at the Escuela de la Lonja with Antonio Caba and Claudio Lorenzale, and furthered his studies in Paris, where he was a disciple of Jean-Léon Gérôme. He spent a stay in Rome, thanks to having won the Fortuny prize. He also traveled through South America and spent several seasons in the Balearic Islands, especially Ibiza, where he settled permanently in his last years. In his work he evolved from a naturalism with romantic overtones towards a certain impressionism that gave great relevance to light and atmosphere, something close to Sorolla's luminism.[392].
San Lucas Artistic Circle
Faced with the more mundane and cosmopolitan character of impressionist modernism, a certain reaction arose around the Círculo Artístico de San Lucas, an association of artists linked to Catholicism, led by José Torras y Bages, creator of a nationalist, traditional, conservative and moralizing ideology, which permeated the works of these artists. However, despite these almost anti-modernist concepts, his work links with modernist painting due to his desire to overcome naturalistic anecdotism and his spiritualism, which connects with the symbolist current. In 1893 the first collective exhibition of the Círculo was held in the Sala Parés.[396].
One of its founders was Joan Llimona, who leaned towards a mysticism of strong religiosity, as denoted in his paintings for the dome of the dressing room of the church of the Montserrat monastery (1898) or the murals in the dining room of the Recolons house in Barcelona (1905).[381] Trained at the Escuela de la Lonja with Antonio Caba and Ramón Martí Alsina, he expanded his studies in Italy for four years, thanks to a scholarship won by his brother, the sculptor Josep Llimona. His first works were of the genre of manners, but around 1890 his painting focused on religion, with compositions that combined formal realism with the idealism of the themes, with a style sometimes compared to Millet and Puvis de Chavannes, as noted in Returning from the field (1896).[397].
Another member of the Circle, more fully symbolist, was Alexandre de Riquer, painter, engraver, decorator, illustrator and poster artist, as well as a poet and art theorist. He lived for a time in London, where he was influenced by Pre-Raphaeliteism and the Arts and Crafts movement. He especially stood out in book illustration (Crisantemes, 1899; Anyoranses, 1902) and in the design of ex-libris, a genre that he raised to high quality levels.[398] In the last stage of his life, established in Mallorca, he dedicated himself to landscaping, in a rather impressionist style.[399].
Other members of the Circle were Dionisio Baixeras and Joaquim Vancells. Baixeras, a disciple of Martí Alsina, dedicated himself to landscapes with a calm appearance.[400] Due to his technique and style, he could be defined more as a naturalist than as a modernist, although he belonged to this generation. He focused on typically Catalan rural themes: shepherds, fishermen, mountains of the Pyrenees or beaches of the Catalan coast.[401] Vancells, also a landscape painter, offered a more rural variant of the gray impressionism of Casas and Rusiñol.[400] He evolved from a highly precise technique close to the Olot School towards a more symbolist tone, in which his landscapes - especially of Montserrat and Vallés "Vallés (Catalonia)")—are tinged with fog and atmospheric effects, as well as a certain sentimentality.[402].
Enrique Galwey and Luis Graner straddled the naturalism of the Olot School and symbolism.[400] Galwey, a disciple of Vayreda, developed a melancholic landscape design, close to Barbizon's painting. His landscapes are schematic, with a large presence of clouds, dark masses, lights and backlights.[389] Graner studied in La Lonja, as well as in Madrid and Paris. Technically he was a conventional artist, who mastered light and color, while thematically he moved between anecdotism and social themes. In his last years he worked in the United States and South America, taking portraits to survive.[403].
Symbolist modernism
Symbolist modernism brought together influences coming not only from Symbolism, but from Romanticism and Pre-Raphaelism, but also from naturalism and other styles, which provided a great amalgamation and complexity that was translated in different ways in each artist. In his production an idealism is perceived that gives great relevance to iconography and that translates into the characters' expression of ideas or feelings, with a special predilection for the female figure, an idealized figure, with little recurrence to the nude "Nude (artistic genre)") - and, if necessary, unrealistic, which removes erotic connotations -, if not fully chaste, especially in painters with moralistic ideas linked to Christianity.[404] Their The main characteristics were asymmetry, two-dimensionality, the sinuous line, the taste for floral decoration, a certain medievalizing tendency and, especially with regard to symbolism, the predilection for allegory and symbolic themes.[405] The technique evolved from a weak coloring with diffuse brush strokes towards a greater chromaticism with thicker brush strokes and freedom of movement.[406].
Casas and Rusiñol partially fall within the symbolist tendency, as well as the members of the Círculo de San Lucas, as we have seen. Among the artists of this movement, Juan Brull, José María Tamburini and Sebastià Junyent also stood out. Brull studied in Barcelona with Simón Gómez and in Paris with Raphaël Collin.[407] From the beginnings of an anecdotal realist style, he evolved towards an academic symbolist idealism. In his work the representation of the female figure stands out, with girls of ethereal beauty who often take the form of fairies or nymphs, as in Calypso (1896) or Dream (1897).[381] Tamburini developed a similar aesthetic of idealized female figures, as in Harmonies of the forest (1896).[408] Initiated in academicism, in which he showed great perfection technique, later he was one of the modernist painters most akin to symbolism, especially for his themes of romantic content.[409] Junyent—brother of Oleguer, with an impressionist tendency—was a restless artist, initiated into Parisian impressionism at the same time as Casas and Rusiñol, but who developed a personal work, in which his most symbolist phase was between 1899—the year of his Chlorosis, of Whistrian influence— and 1903, the date on which he made an Annunciation that already indicated a more archaizing style. His best work in these years was Ave María (1902), which shows an idealism close to Henri Martin "Henri Martin (painter)").[410] Later he focused on social issues - especially marginal characters -, endowed with a strong melancholic vision, due to his depressive character, which led him to madness in his final stage. He was also an art critic in the magazines Joventut "Joventut (magazine)") and , as well as a poster artist, bookbinder and furniture designer.[411] He may have influenced Pablo Picasso, with whom he shared a studio in Barcelona and whom he accompanied to Paris.[412].
Postmodernism
The last pictorial trend within modernism was more heterogeneous, in a line that brought together various styles, both the previous ones and the various new trends that were emerging in Europe, especially post-impressionism. In general, they were artists of a new generation—the majority born in the 1870s—who sought to break ties with the previous one and embark on a new, more personal path. Although many of them were trained academically—especially at the Escuela de la Lonja—, they renounced their training and sought new avenues of expression. Although they were more personal artists, in general they stand out for a more urban and social theme, denouncing the miseries of their time, expressed with harshness and acrimony, with a more daring and expressive technique in lights and colors - where black takes on a strong role -, with thick brushstrokes applied in spots with a strong material component, as well as a more nervous and schematic drawing.[419] According to Francesc Fontbona, creator of the term "postmodernism" in his work La crisis of artistic modernism (1975), "postmodernism, compared to the idealism or the stylized and dispassionate realism of the modernists, opposes critical realism - marginal theme - and/or aesthetic rethinking" and points it out as an "intermediate generation" between modernism and noucentisme. a "white" wing - the impressionist-symbolist generation - and another "black" wing - the post-impressionist-expressionist generation.[420].
The new generation of modernist painters appeared around a group of young painters nicknamed la Colla del Safrà ("the Saffron Gang"), for their taste in the abundant use of cadmium colors. It was a group of post-impressionist affiliation, which had au plein air painting as one of its basic premises. [421] Formed by Joaquín Mir, Isidro Nonell, Ramón Pichot, Ricard Canals, Adrián Gual - a short period of time, although, as has been seen, their work leans more towards symbolism -, Joaquim Sunyer and Juli Vallmitjana, their work was based on a sketched-looking realism focused on suburban themes, especially from peripheral neighborhoods of Barcelona such as Montjuic or San Martín de Provensals.[422] In this sense, the most paradigmatic work of this group was The Cathedral of the Poor, by Joaquín Mir (1898), which shows some beggars around the Sagrada Familia. Mir, however, soon changed his style, after a stay in Mallorca that began in 1900, in which he focused on capturing the Mallorcan landscape, with a warm and intense color. He evolved again around 1906, due to a convalescence due to mental disorders in the Campo de Tarragona, with a more diffuse landscaping, based on spots of color, close to abstraction.[423] This was a stage of intense personal creation, with works that purified his previous style—excessively decorative—to focus on a drawing with a nervous line with round spots of bright colors that seem to float in the air and where the Elements of the field and clouds rise in twisted volutes that sometimes recall the work of Van Gogh—perhaps because they coincide with mental disorders.[424].
Sculpture
La escultura modernista, como el resto de las artes de este movimiento, fue heredera del Romanticismo, de la exaltación de la humanidad, la individualidad, la emotividad, la sensibilidad, frente al formalismo del clasicismo. La escultura intenta expresar como nunca el sentimiento, la emoción, con dos principales referentes: el ser humano y la naturaleza. Predomina la forma curva, la línea ondulante y sinuosa, que se deshace en múltiples detalles que llenan todo el espacio escultórico.[460] La escultura fue protagonista indispensable de muchos proyectos arquitectónicos, como un elemento principal de la decoración interior y exterior de edificios, sin desmerecer la escultura exenta, que vivió una época de gran esplendor. También tuvieron un gran auge los monumentos funerarios y conmemorativos.[58].
La escultura del modernismo fue heredera del monumentalismo de los hermanos Agapito y Venancio Vallmitjana, si bien con posterioridad recibió la influencia del simbolismo francés, especialmente de la obra de Auguste Rodin,[461] conocida sobre todo a raíz de la Exposición Universal de París "Exposición Universal de París (1900)") de 1900, donde este escultor presentó una retrospectiva de ciento sesenta y ocho obras, que visitaron muchos de los escultores catalanes que viajaron a la capital francesa. Dos de las obras más emblemáticas de la escultura modernista, la Eva de Clarasó y el Desconsuelo de Llimona, se basan directamente en La danaide de Rodin.[462] También fue determinante la influencia del belga Constantin Meunier y su temática obrera,[4] especialmente tras la celebración de la V Exposición Internacional de Bellas Artes de Barcelona, en que se presentaron treinta y ocho obras del artista belga.[463].
Como en la arquitectura, el punto de arranque de la escultura modernista fue la Exposición Universal de 1888, donde, junto a los nombres consolidados de la generación realista anterior (los Vallmitjana, Rossend Nobas, Jerónimo Suñol, Manuel Oms), que coparon los grandes encargos oficiales, surgió una nueva generación de artistas que comenzaban a abrirse camino, entre los que destacaban Josep Llimona, Miguel Blay, Agustín Querol, Eusebi Arnau o Manuel Fuxá. Estos artistas, pese a todo, se iniciaron en el academicismo, para ir evolucionando poco a poco a estilos más personales. Las innovaciones aportadas por la pintura, tras el regreso de Casas y Rusiñol de París, influyeron igualmente en la escultura, ya que aportaron una visión nueva, una nueva forma de concebir el arte, más basada en la inspiración individual que no en el canon imitativo que se transmitía en las escuelas de arte.[464] Como en otras artes, se perciben diversas fases o generaciones de artistas: en la primera se situarían los artistas herederos del realismo académico y que, poco a poco, se van adentrando en la nueva estética; la segunda incluiría los escultores plenamente modernistas; en la tercera y última se situaría la obra inicial de artistas que posteriormente evolucionaron hacia el novecentismo.[4].
Within the first generation, Manuel Fuxá was trained in academicism, as a student at the Escuela de la Lonja in Barcelona, where he was a disciple of Rossend Nobas. He still moved in a realism of formalist concern and serene air. In 1888 he was part of the team of sculptors who worked on the decoration of the Arc de Triomphe. He was the author of various monuments, such as that of Clavé (1888) and that of Rius y Taulet (1901), as well as sculptural decoration for architecture, such as the relief of the Sacred Heart of the Pérez Samanillo house, the work of Hervàs.[465].
Josep Reynés also studied at La Lonja and was a student of the Vallmitjana brothers, as well as Carpeaux in Paris. He was also essentially a realist, although he timidly ventured into modernism. He also participated in the sculptural work on the Arc de Triomphe. He was the author of the Monument to El Greco (1898) that was promoted by the modernist circle of Sitges.[465].
Agustín Querol was a disciple of the Vallmitjana family and achieved, from modest beginnings, great success among the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy, with a large workshop where numerous assistants worked. His work is part of anecdotal realism, but a certain modernist approach can be seen in the workmanship and conception of the work. He carried out most of his work in Madrid, where he lived since 1890.[466].
Rafael Atché also trained with the Vallmitjanas and traveled through France, Italy and the United Kingdom, continuing with the anecdotal realism of his contemporaries. He was the author of the figure of the discoverer of the Monument to Columbus "Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)"), as well as various works for the Hospital Clínico and the Palace of Justice of Barcelona.[466].
Josep Montserrat studied at La Lonja and in Paris. He developed an anecdotal realism with a taste for a certain precious pointillism. His most famous work is the Manelic, located in the Montjuic Sculpture Garden.[465].
Full modernism
Fully modernist sculpture was clearly symbolist, under the direct influence of Rodin. This is evident in the predominance of feeling over the realistic description that until then predominated, the expression of states of mind, of the fusion between matter and spirit. For this, apart from the symbolist ideology, the rise of funerary sculpture was decisive, which due to its very origin reflected a theme that was more sentimental than descriptive, more ideal than anecdotal, through allegories and figures that showed feelings such as pain, loneliness, despair, meditation, generally in the form of stylized female figures, with flowing dresses and long hair, in a melancholic or introspective attitude. This typology was passed on to the rest of the sculpture figures of the time, defining a plastic of polished and wavy surfaces, with a tendency towards chiaroscuro effects, with unroughened bases, figures that emerge from the material, with clothing that blends with the skin and faces generally in faded or non finito.[467].
Its best representative was Josep Llimona, brother of the painter Joan Llimona and, like him, linked to the San Lucas Artistic Circle - he was its second president.[468] He studied at La Lonja and worked in the workshops of Nobas and the Vallmitjana brothers. After winning a scholarship, he traveled to Rome, where he studied at the Gigi Academy. In a first, still academic phase, he worked on works such as the Monument to Columbus or the Arc de Triomphe, with which he gained fame. In most of his works, feelings that will mark his work are revealed: pain and sadness.[469] He began in full modernism with Desconsuelo (1903), a figure of a naked woman half lying down, with her head in her arms, in an attitude of despair, as its title indicates. Located in the Ciudadela park, in the center of an elliptical pond located in front of the old military arsenal that today houses the headquarters of the Parliament of Catalonia, in 1984 the original was moved to the National Museum of Art of Catalonia and, in its location, a copy was placed.[470] It is a paradigmatic work of symbolist spirituality: a mysterious, sensitive, enigmatic, evanescent figure, which combines sensuality and spirituality.[471] His other great work was the Monument to Doctor Robert (1910), in the Plaza de Tetuán, with a somewhat eclectic modernism.[472] Of the rest of his production, in addition to the female figures with a melancholic appearance, the male figures stand out who, even with a vigorous and heroic physical appearance, also transcend a certain melancholy, although framed in a general air of nobility, such as his San Jorge "San Jorge (Llimona)") or his Forger.[473] Died in 1934, he was faithful to his style until the end, without succumbing to the change in Noucentista fashion, which is why he can be considered the most genuinely modernist sculptor.[474].
After the fully modernist generation, a new generation that would stand out in Noucentisme began in the field of sculpture in the modernist era, so their first works were to a greater or lesser extent in this style. These artists focused on a more social theme, like the postmodernist painters, focused on marginal and poverty environments, with a style of simpler lines, with rough surfaces, with more accentuated light contrasts and a preference for bronze compared to the marble that the previous generation used to use.[492].
It is worth mentioning Pablo Gargallo, an Aragonese artist who studied at La Lonja - where he was a disciple of Eusebi Arnau - and was associated with the Els Quatre Gats group. He later spent a stay in Paris, where he received the influence of Rodin. His first works show modernist touches, such as The Beast of Man (1904) or The Humbles (1904), or his collaborations at the Hospital de San Pablo, the Palacio de la Música Catalana or the Teatro Principal de Terrassa.[493].
Ismael Smith can hardly be described as a modernist, but his early works are limited to the heyday of the movement. He was a disciple of Mariano Benlliure, Agustín Querol, the Vallmitjana family and Josep Llimona, and worked for a time in Rafael Atché's workshop. In 1904 he made Tempestad, at the age of eighteen, from which he developed a style that was called decadent.[494].
Jaume Otero, from Menorca, was a disciple of Manuel Fuxá, as well as Albert Bartholomé in Paris. It evolved from early works with a certain faded appearance towards Noucentista naturalism. Among his first works Symbolo (1910) stands out.[494].
The brothers Miguel and Luciano Oslé were influenced by both Josep Llimona and Constantin Meunier, with whom they agreed on the working-class themes, as well as fishermen and simple townspeople,[495] in works such as Inspiration (1904), The Return of the Fisherman (1904) and Slaves (1906), by Miguel; and Brothers (1904), The Villager (1906) and Prisoners (1908), by Luciano.[496].
Enric Casanovas was also a disciple of Llimona. His first works, rather than being framed in modernism, show a certain indecision prior to the search for his own style:[497] The Little Nanny (1903), Sad Walkers (1904), Pastor del Cadí (1907), Bust of a Catalan Woman (1908).[496].
Manolo Hugué was close to the genesis of modernism, since he moved in the circle of Els Quatre Gats, where he became friends with Rusiñol, Mir, Nonell and Picasso, but in 1900 he moved to Paris for ten years, moving away from modernism. However, some of his first works show the modernist style.[498].
Finally, Josep Clarà would be one of the main figures of Noucentisme, although he also began in Modernisme. His love for music led him for a time to make works with a vaporous appearance, similar to modernist aesthetics, such as (1903). Once his style was consolidated, he focused on the female figure, framed in Noucentista Mediterraneanism.[498].
Medalist
It is worth highlighting a section on the artistic specialty of the medal, which at this time had a great effervescence, being practiced by numerous leading sculptors. Generally, they were made to commemorate some event and preserve its memory, through its exhibition and conservation, sometimes being the object of collecting. Medals require certain characteristics, since they are serial objects, small in size, generally round in shape - although also square or rectangular - and must convey a message or idea. They are generally made of metals such as copper, lead, tin, nickel, gold and silver, although they can also be made of glass or ceramic.[499].
The first modernist medals were made by Eusebi Arnau for the Universal Exhibition of 1888, although the majority at that time continued to be neoclassical or romantic in style and would still be for a few years to come. The consecration of modernist medalism would come with the turn of the century, also starring Arnau as one of its greatest architects, in medals such as the one commemorating the demolition of the walls of Barcelona (1895), the one for the Barcelona Agricultural Competition Fair (1898), the one dedicated to Dr. Robert (1901), the one for the Barcelona Merced Festival (1902), the Christmas one for the Barcelona City Council (1906), that of the V International Art Exhibition (1907), that of the National Assembly of Publishers and Booksellers (1909) and that of the Spring Festival (1910).[500].
Along with Arnau, the main medalists of the time were Antonio Parera and Josep Llimona. The first produced medals attributable to modernism at the beginning of the century, after a realistic stage, such as: the Catalan National Festival (1907), that of the Catalan Agricultural Institute of San Isidro (1907), that of the Inauguration of the Palace of Justice of Barcelona (1908) and that of the XI Congress of the Catalan-Balearic Agricultural Federation (1908). Llimona was perhaps the most fully modernist, as in the medal-distinctive for the interveners of the Regionalist League (1907), that of the Barcelona Floral Games of 1908, the Great Medallion Cataluña a Guimerá (1909), that of the Catalan Orfeón (1911) and that of the Excursionist Center of Catalonia (1912). Other artists who made medals to a lesser extent were: Miguel Blay, Pablo Gargallo, Lluís Masriera and Josep Maria Camps i Arnau.[501].
graphic arts
El modernismo, por su carácter ornamental, supuso una gran revitalización de las artes gráficas, con una nueva concepción más enfocada en el acto creador y en la equiparación con el resto de artes plásticas, hasta el punto de que sus artífices plantearon por primera vez la «unidad de las artes». El diseño modernista planteaba en general la revalorización de las propiedades intrínsecas de cada material, con unas formas de tipo organicista inspiradas en la naturaleza.[39].
El diseño gráfico destacó sobre todo en la ilustración para revistas y periódicos, así como en el cartelismo y el exlibrismo, pero fue excelso también en ilustraciones para portadas de libros, catálogos de exposiciones, programas de fiestas y espectáculos, etiquetas, diplomas, invitaciones, tarjetas de visita y todo tipo de impresos, elaborados en general por los mismos artistas autores de ilustraciones, carteles y exlibris.[502] Destacaron sobre todo las revistas ilustradas, como La Ilustración Artística, Hispania "Hispania (Barcelona)"), Álbum Salón, Hojas Selectas, La Campana de Gracia, L'Esquella de la Torratxa, ¡Cu-Cut!, Papitu, Joventut "Joventut (revista)"), Luz, Quatre Gats y Pèl & Ploma.[503].
Un sector que sufrió grandes cambios durante este período fue el de la impresión de libros. Hasta entonces solían ser libros tipográficos, ilustrados con xilografías o calcografías, pero a lo largo del siglo fueron surgiendo nuevas técnicas de impresión, gracias al desarrollo de las rotativas, el fotograbado, la litografía y la cromolitografía, así como la industrialización de la producción de papel y tinta. El desarrollo de las técnicas de impresión comportó la creación en 1898 del Instituto Catalán de las Artes del Libro (ICAL), que a su vez fomentó la creación de una escuela de oficios de la imprenta y la publicación de una Revista Gráfica.[504] Entre las imprentas de la época cabe destacar las de Josep Thomas, Fidel Giró, Joan Oliva y Octavi Viader,[505] mientras que de las editoriales destacó Montaner y Simón.[506] También tuvo un gran auge la bibliofilia, gracias a la fundación en 1903 de la Sociedad Catalana de Bibliófilos y a la publicación de la revista Bibliofília (1911-1914 y 1915-1920), dirigida por Ramón Miquel y Planas.[506].
También se desarrolló la tipografía, gracias especialmente a Eudald Canivell, renovador de las técnicas tipográficas, que desarrolló un estilo goticizante llamado Gótico Incunable Canibell.[507] Otro sector en auge fue la encuadernación, terreno en el que cabe remarcar la obra de Josep Roca i Alemany, creador de encuadernaciones de cuero de gran calidad, como el Llibre d'Homenatge del Futbol Català;[508] o Eduard Domènech i Montaner, hermano del arquitecto, que destacó en la colección Biblioteca Arte y Letras.[509].
Drawing and illustration
Drawing had great relevance in Catalan modernism, not only as a preparatory basis for making paintings, but also on its own, as an independent art. Many modernist painters were great draftsmen and, in several cases, their drawing work is almost as relevant as their pictorial work, as could be the case of Ramón Casas, Adrián Gual or Alexandre de Riquer.[510] Other artists, although they could occasionally venture into the field of painting, stood out more as draftsmen, either as art in itself or as illustrators for magazines, newspapers or books. In terms of technique and style, there were more or less the same variants as in painting, as would also occur in terms of theme, from the more decorative one typical of modernism with European roots to the social theme typical of "black" modernism.[511] It should be noted that the wide dissemination of modernist drawing thanks to the printed media greatly helped the dissemination of the style, especially among the popular classes.[512].
Among the cartoonists, Apeles Mestres should be highlighted first, a member of a previous generation, but who fully integrated into modernism and who should be noted as the creator of a new Catalan school of illustration. He collaborated in magazines such as La Campana de Gracia and L'Esquella de la Torratxa and, thanks to his role as a writer, he approached the creation of books as total works of art, with equal care in texts as in illustrations, as seen in Liliana (1907).[513] He illustrated all types of books, such as La dama de las camellias, El lazarillo de Tormes or the Episodios nationals by Benito Pérez Galdós. Between 1896 and 1906 he published a daily cartoon in La Publicitat. Influenced by Pre-Raphaeliteism and Japanese prints, he developed an austere and linear style, alternating satirical character with more serious works.[514].
From the most symbolist and Art Nouveau line within modernism, Alexandre de Riquer, Adrián Gual and Josep Maria Roviralta stood out. Riquer, in addition to being a painter and writer, was also a great draftsman. He was the artistic director of the magazine Joventut (1900-1906) and one of the main collaborators of the magazine Luz, as well as La Ilustració Catalana, Arte y Letras and others. He also illustrated his own books, such as Quan jo era noy (1897), Crisantemes (1899) and Anyoranses (1902). He had a refined, flat and elegant style, influenced by Japanese prints.[515] Gual also stood out in drawing, especially the illustration of his own texts. He collaborated with magazines such as Luz, Joventut and Pèl & Ploma, he was artistic director of the magazine and editor of the Ibsian magazine . But he stood out in the editing of his own books, of which he dealt with both the text and the illustration, such as (1896), (1897) and (1899). His style moved in a somewhat austere, synthetic symbolism, with empty spaces to emphasize the main drawing, without the usual ornate ornamentations of modernism.[516] Roviralta was an illustrator - he worked mainly for the magazine -, with a certain influence from Vallotton, as denoted in his strong contrasts of black and white. He was also a poet and one of his works, (1902), was illustrated, however, by the cartoonist Lluís Bonnín.[517].
Recorded
Engraving in the century underwent an important technical renewal thanks to lithography, a new type of engraving on limestone, invented by Aloys Senefelder in 1796. Due to its ease of printing and low cost, lithography was widely used in the journalistic environment until the appearance of photomechanical techniques.[530] New techniques such as heliogravure, zincography, photolithography and phototype also emerged. On the other hand, the invention of the daguerreotype and photography led to the appearance of illustrated magazines, especially with the technique of xylophotography and, since 1880, photogravure. All of this led to the readaptation of the old professional engravers, those who worked engravings by hand - in the old techniques of woodcut and intaglio - who became engravers-artists, in which, beyond the technique, their artisticity, the style and quality of their lines were valued. Even so, few Catalan artists cultivated the old techniques: Alexandre de Riquer had an intaglio press in his home-workshop on Freneria Street in Barcelona, where he taught intaglio engraving classes; Joaquim Sunyer and Ramón Pichot were interested for a time in etching, sometimes in color.[531] Joan Vidal i Ventosa dedicated himself to pyrography, for which work he founded the Guayaba studio, also famous for a gathering where Picasso attended. Among his works stands out Vallcarca on a moonlit night, which is in the National Museum of Art of Catalonia.[527] The caricaturist Cayetano Cornet founded a photoengraving industry, later converted into the Union of Photoengravers.[360] Pau Roig was a painter, watercolorist, engraver and illustrator, in a post-impressionist style with vibrant lines and colors; He lived for a long time in Paris, where he made an admirable series of lithographs dedicated to the circus, with the influence of Toulouse-Lautrec. He also practiced etching, in a line more influenced by the work of Cézanne.[532].
A genre that had a great boom at this time was poster art, promoted in those years by chromolithography and sponsored by the increase in advertising, a phenomenon favored in turn by the economic boom of those years.[533] In poster art, a special influence was received from France, where renowned artists dedicated themselves to advertising design, such as Toulouse-Lautrec or Steinlein. However, in Catalonia it soon reached levels of great quality and uniqueness, thanks to artists of equal value, such as Ramón Casas. Trained largely in Paris, Casas designed posters of a quality comparable to his paintings, such as Anís del Mono (1889), Champagne Codorniu, Els Quatre Gats or Paris Cigarettes (1901). Another painter who ventured into poster art was Santiago Rusiñol, a genre that he cultivated above all to advertise his theatrical works, such as L'alegria que passa, Oracions or Fulls de vida. Alexandre de Riquer also stood out, author of posters that show the influence of Alfons Mucha, most of them made with etching, such as those made for the Círculo Artístico de San Lucas or for the Grau y Cía cookie factory. Other notable poster artists were: Joan Llaverias, author of the posters for the Esteva and Portabella fashion house; Carlos Vázquez Úbeda, Ciudad Real resident established in Barcelona, disciple in Paris of Léon Bonnat, author of the famous Sala Parés poster of 1904; Adrián Gual, son of a lithographer, who like Rusiñol advertised his Teatre Íntim, also highlighting his poster for the IV Exhibition of Fine Arts and Artistic Industries (1898); and Javier Gosé, author of posters that show the influence of Gustav Klimt.[534].
Design and decorative arts
El modernismo destacó especialmente en cuanto a diseño, generando un gran número de obras de gran calidad en terrenos como la orfebrería, la cerámica, la ebanistería, la forja, la vidriería, el mosaico y otras disciplinas artesanales.[541] La mayor fuente de inspiración del diseño modernista fue la naturaleza, con especial predilección por la asimetría y la línea curva (olas, espirales, volutas) y elementos como flores, tallos, aves e insectos. En general, se buscaban elementos asociados a conceptos efímeros, a la preocupación por la existencia y a la evocación de la belleza.[542].
El origen del diseño modernista se encuentra en una nueva toma de conciencia liderada por los arquitectos de fin de siglo, los cuales, frente a la recreación de estilos del pasado fomentada por el historicismo, se afanan en buscar un estilo nuevo, un estilo que sirviese a las necesidades de una nueva sociedad que inicia una nueva era.[543] En la búsqueda de este nuevo estilo serán determinantes las influencias procedentes de Europa, especialmente del Arts and Crafts inglés, así como del prerrafaelismo y del simbolismo, e incluso el japonismo; de igual manera, se encuentra un especial referente en el naturalismo, las formas de la naturaleza, bien anatómicas, zoológicas o botánicas.[544] El objetivo es la integración de las artes, la planificación de una obra en su conjunto, en la que hasta el más mínimo detalle está estudiado en un concepto unitario. Arquitectos como Gaudí o Domènech i Montaner abordaron en persona toda la concepción de sus obras, desde los aspectos arquitectónicos hasta la decoración y el interiorismo; cuando no, otros arquitectos encargaron estas facetas a decoradores o artesanos, pero siempre con una visión integradora.[545].
Uno de los mayores impulsores de los oficios artísticos dentro del modernismo fue Salvador Sanpere, quien ya en los años 1870 había valorado en un viaje a Inglaterra la decidida apuesta por la artesanía y las artes industriales en este país. Preocupado por la unión de calidad y belleza en el diseño artesanal e industrial, fomentó conferencias y exposiciones para la difusión de las nuevas ideas, así como la fundación en 1894 del Centro de Artes Decorativas y de la revista El Arte Decorativo, una labor que cristalizó con la organización en 1896 de la Exposición de Bellas Artes e Industrias Artísticas, que por primera vez conectaba estas dos ramas del arte. Otro centro difusor fue el Castillo de los Tres Dragones, el edificio diseñado por Lluís Domènech i Montaner como restaurante de la Exposición Universal de 1888, que se dedicó por un tiempo al fomento de las artes aplicadas, con la participación de arquitectos, artistas y artesanos, bajo la dirección del propio Domènech junto con Antoni Maria Gallissà y nombres como Frederic Masriera, Eusebi Arnau, Antoni Rigalt o Jaume Pujol.[546] Por otro lado, en 1903 se fundó la entidad Fomento de las Artes Decorativas (actualmente Fomento de las Artes y del Diseño), con el objetivo de impulsar la producción artesanal. Su primer presidente fue el arquitecto Manuel Vega y March.[547].
Un claro exponente de arquitecto preocupado por el interiorismo y las artes decorativas fue Antoni Gaudí, que diseñó muchos de los muebles y obras de forja para sus obras, así como innovó en el terreno del mosaico con su técnica del trencadís, un tipo de aplacados de cerámica hecha con piezas de desecho que disponía en combinaciones originales y fantasiosas, como su banco ondulante del parque Güell.[548] En su etapa de estudiante, Gaudí frecuentó diversos talleres artesanales, como los de Eudald Puntí, Llorenç Matamala y Joan Oñós, donde aprendió los aspectos básicos de todos los oficios relacionados con la arquitectura.[549].
En el terreno del diseño, el modernismo se dio en todo tipo de objetos, muchos de ellos tratados como pequeñas esculturas, como jarrones, espejos, lámparas, relojes, bibelots, jardineras, plafones, biombos, ceniceros, objetos de escritorio, juegos de café y otros, elaborados en bronce, plata, cerámica, terracota, estuco, porcelana y otros materiales. Este tipo de objetos estuvo quizá más cercano que otros al diseño Art Nouveau realizado en el resto de Europa, especialmente el francés, con influencia de autores como René Lalique o Émile Gallé.[550].
Decoration and interior design
With the boom experienced by ornamentation brought about by modernism, all the arts and construction techniques related to decoration gained great prominence, such as facings "Facing (architecture)"), coatings and sgraffito. All trades related to stone, wood, iron, glass, ceramics, plaster or stucco were revalued. Decorators, painters, draftsmen, sculptors and craftsmen of all kinds intervened in the field of design. As a general rule, the decoration of buildings, whether on walls or in galleries, balconies, tribunes, columns, pillars, friezes and other elements, was usually carried out with floral, vegetal, geometric or figurative motifs, with a predominance of the curved line and figures such as spirals, arabesques, ellipses, zig-zags and similar.[551].
In general, modernist interior design sought the unification of all the elements of the property to be decorated, their integration into a common design. One of the main interior designers was Salvador Alarma, also known as a set designer, architect of the decoration of several establishments such as the La Paloma dance hall or the La Luna bar in Barcelona. Other notable decorators were Ricard de Capmany, Josep Pascó and Miguel Moragas, whose work was recognized with the inclusion of a specific prize for establishments within the award for the best building "Annual competition for artistic buildings (Barcelona)") awarded each year by Barcelona City Council.[552].
The walls gained texture and color at this time, abandoning smooth shapes in favor of volume and relief, whether in stone or stucco. The use of different stones became popular to play with the tones of each one, the most common being those from Montjuic "Montjuic (Barcelona)"), Figueras, Calafell, Manresa, Murcia or Alicante. When natural stone was not allowed, pigments were used, which at that time had grown in a wide palette of colors, with catalogs that included up to three hundred varieties. The favorites were light and bright, especially green, lilac, blue and pink. As for the stucco, it was usually monochrome and, if a combination of colors was preferred, sgraffito was used. Inside, stuccos that imitated marble or jasper were used. The crowns of the buildings also evolved from the usual friezes, plinths or railings to pediments, shields and temples. The balconies were usually made of cast iron and the most common decorative motifs were flowers, the coup de fouet, the palm leaf and the butterfly.[553].
As for coverings, stucco and sgraffito predominated on the walls, either with ornamental motifs or in imitation of the work seen, with a predilection for reddish and yellowish tones. On interior walls, the use of wallpapers became very popular, most of them imported from France, whose largest importer was the Pineda stores, although decorators such as Salvador Roma, Salvador Sàlvia and Juli Portet also dedicated themselves to their trade; as a national manufacturer, highlighted Antoni Pallejà. Some were designed by architects such as Antoni Gallissà, who patented a type called Pegamoid. Other common resources on the walls were fabrics, mosaics or wall paintings. The floors used to be covered with hydraulic paving, decorated with the same ornamental motifs. The enclosures were usually made of wood, combining different textures and colors, and with iron, textile or wallpaper appliqués. Ceramic or glass ceilings were also often used. Generally, the spaces were conceived as a unit, both floors, walls and ceilings, combining parquet, beams and coffered ceilings with the same ornamental motifs. One of the companies that had a broader catalog in this regard was Casas y Bardés, which patented some wood substitutes called and .[554].
Cabinetmaking
The field of cabinetmaking was also highly developed, since modernist architects placed equal emphasis on the exterior as well as the interior of the building, so the interior decoration was very careful. Many architects designed their own furniture themselves, such as Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner and Puig i Cadafalch.[556] Cabinetmaking was inspired, like the rest of the modernist arts, by organic shapes, with a preference for curves, finding inspiration in plants, flowers, birds, fish or butterflies, as well as the female figure. There was a predilection for light woods, such as ash or sycamore, while dark woods were only used to provide contrast in the marquetry and glass and metal appliqués were used.[557] Mahogany was also used, generally imported from Cuba, which was usually dyed red, carmine or sienna "Siena (color)"). Inlays of ivory, bone, mother-of-pearl or tortoiseshell were also often applied.[558].
Modernist furniture oscillated, as in the rest of the arts in general, between beginnings where the inertia of the past persists and an evolution that anticipates the forms of the future that would arrive with the century.[559] The great precursor of the new forms within modernist furniture was Francesc Vidal y Jevellí. He studied at the School of Decorative Arts in Paris and, in 1883, opened a workshop manufacturing furniture and decorative objects, both in wrought iron, glass and upholstery. His furniture, always personalized and never made in series, reached levels of great perfection, standing out for its assemblies, friezes and moldings.[560] Vidal's workshop was also dedicated to the production of sumptuary and decorative objects, seeking to cover all the decorative needs of a domestic interior, making him one of the first interior decorators of modernism. In addition to cabinetmaking, he was dedicated to glassmaking and forging. It had the collaboration of the best artists and craftsmen of the moment, such as Alexandre de Riquer - as designer -, Antoni Rigalt - in charge of the glass section - and Frederic Masriera - in the forging section -, in addition to his son, Frederic Vidal, designer of furniture, lamps and screens and specialist in cloisonné glass; On the other hand, most of the best professionals of the time were trained in his workshop.[561].
One of its greatest exponents was Gaspar Homar, descendant of several generations of carpenters and disciple of Vidal Jevellí. In 1893 he created his own workshop, in which he developed an excellent work, which evolved from somewhat Gothic style beginnings to a full modernism, which stands out for the perfection of its forms and models, as can be seen in his furniture for the houses Lleó Morera, Amatller, Trinxet, Oliva, Par de Mesa, Marqués de Marianao, Arumí, Garrut, Pladellorens and others. He had the help of various collaborators, especially in the design, such as Alexandre de Riquer or Josep Pey, who designed marquetry and applications of metal, bone or mother-of-pearl, generally of nymphs wrapped in lilies; or from ceramists such as Lluís Bru or Antoni Serra Fiter. After the First World War it evolved towards Noucentisme, with mass production.[562].
Ceramics and mosaic
One of the areas that gained a new boom was ceramics, which was used both in the interior and exterior cladding of buildings, in covering facades, railings and ornamental elements, in the form of polychrome tiles. .[578] One of the causes of the revaluation of ceramics was the rediscovery of the metallic reflection, which was recovered from Mudejar art. In this sense, in 1887 Gaudí and Domènech i Montaner made a trip to Manises to learn in depth about this technique, which they then applied in their work. Domènech i Montaner, together with Antoni Gallissà, formed a crafts workshop in the Castle of the Three Dragons, where some of the best ceramists of the time worked, such as Pau Pujol, Baldomero Santigós and Josep Ros, in addition to the glassmaker Antoni Rigalt and the sculptor Eusebi Arnau.[579].
At this time, new products emerged, such as crystal tiles—an invention of the Oliva brothers—or chromolithographed cardboard tiles, patented by Hermenegildo Miralles.[580] The trencadís technique also emerged, devised by Gaudí together with his then assistant Josep Maria Jujol for various works in Park Güell. It involved the use of discarded remains of ceramics, generally enameled or glazed, sometimes combined with other materials, such as glass bottles, mirrors or earthenware plates and cups, all joined with mortar.[581] With this material, the undulating bench in Park Güell was made, as well as the medallions on the ceiling of the hypostyle room and the dragon (or salamander) on the access staircase to the park. park.[582].
One of the most prominent ceramists was Antoni Serra Fiter, trained as a painter and creator of a workshop that stood out for its high quality, especially in Sèvres-style stoneware and porcelain, of which his bibelots and decorated vases stand out. Various artists and designers worked for him, such as Pablo Gargallo, Xavier Nogués, Ismael Smith and Josep Pey. It won various awards at fine arts exhibitions in Barcelona, London and Paris.[583] Equally relevant was the work of Jaume Escofet, potter and ceramist, creator of the company Escofet & Fortuny, who despite its industrial nature created pieces of high quality, highlighting his pavement tiles, many of which cover the streets of Barcelona, among which the tiles that Gaudí designed for the Paseo de Gracia stand out.[584] Another company from industrial manufacturing was Pujol i Bausis, started by Jaume Pujol and continued by his son, Pau Pujol, creators of most of the tiles and mosaics that covered the modernist buildings, with designs by the architects themselves, such as Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner or Puig i Cadafalch, as well as with the collaboration of artists and designers such as Lluís Bru and Adrián Gual.[584] The ceramics of Pujol i Bausis It is found in works such as the Amatller House, the San Pablo Hospital or Park Güell. The old factory, located in Esplugas de Llobregat, currently houses the La Rajoleta Ceramics Museum.[585].
Glassworks
The art of stained glass was also revitalized, also used in the decoration of buildings as the enclosure of doors, windows and galleries.[577] In this, as in other arts, a level of quality was reached that equaled the period of splendor of stained glass: the Gothic.[584] The boom in the use of stained glass came from architects, who increasingly demanded them for their works, which forced artisans to take great care in both their technique and the aesthetic and iconographic aspects of its creation.[592] Thus, a progressive evolution is perceived from the first works, heirs of historicism, in which ornamental grisailles were still used in the Gothic style, to the stained glass windows full of color and texture found, for example, in the Palace of Catalan Music. The design of these stained glass windows was sometimes carried out by the architect or some other collaborating artist, usually a painter; In others, the glassmaker was left free to make his own designs.[593] Among the painters who designed stained glass windows, it is worth highlighting Alexandre de Riquer, Joaquín Mir, Josep Triadó, Joaquim Renart and Josep Pey.[594].
The most prominent figure was Antoni Rigalt, a painter and draftsman as well as a glassmaker, as well as a professor at the School of Fine Arts. He founded a glass workshop on Calle Mallorca and Paseo de Gracia - the company Rigalt, Granell i Cia., in collaboration with the architect Ferran Granell - which enjoyed great success, with commissions from leading architects to decorate its buildings. Among his works, the glass dome of the Palace of Catalan Music stands out or the stained glass windows of the Lleó Morera house, both by Domènech i Montaner. In 1888 he won a gold medal at the Universal Exhibition.[595].
Other notable authors were: the painter and engraver Francesc Canyelles, author of the stained glass windows in the assembly hall of the Casa de la Caridad in Barcelona, with an extension of; in series of Viennese influence;[596] Frederic Vidal, son of the cabinetmaker Vidal y Jevellí, who studied the cloisonné glass technique in London and worked in his father's workshop making mainly lamps and screens;[417] Joan Espinagosa, importer of printed glass for the first time from England, founded a renowned workshop in Barcelona that had the collaboration as designer of Luis Gargallo, brother of Pablo Gargallo;[597] Lluís Oriach worked for architects such as Manuel Raspall, Josep Maria Jujol and Cèsar Martinell, standing out for the quality of his finishes.[598] Finally, it is worth mentioning the French company Maumejean, with branches in Madrid and Barcelona, which was in charge of the stained glass windows of the Sabadell Savings Bank and the Pérez Samanillo house.[599].
Finally, it is worth mentioning the interesting stained glass project for the restoration of the Cathedral of Mallorca, prepared by Antoni Gaudí in collaboration with the painters Iu Pascual, Jaume Llongueras and Joaquín Torres García, in which they tested a new technique based on trichrome, superimposing glass with the three primary colors.[600].
Forging and foundry
As in other arts, forging developed notably in this period. In general, the cast iron technique was used, although, compared to the industrial and serialized work that emerged since the beginning of the century, artisanal work returned to a large extent. Some architects made designs to be made in a forge, such as Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch, Enric Sagnier, Josep Maria Jujol, José Vilaseca or Alexandre Soler. Along with them, some sculptors also made designs for forging, such as the brothers Miguel and Luciano Oslé, Josep Maria Barnadas or Julio González, son of a forger, Concordio González; and also draftsmen and designers, such as Pau Sabaté.[601] Some cabinetmakers, such as Gaspar Homar or Joan Busquets, also designed wrought iron elements, especially lamps.[602].
The modernist forge stood out for its predilection for the curved shape - especially the so-called coup de fouet - or the helical shape, as well as for its three-dimensionality, since they tended to occupy empty spaces within the architecture and not as reinforcement of a wall or other element that conferred greater two-dimensionality. The bars were generally replaced by handrails or twisted ribbons, with diagonal crisscrosses. As for decorative elements, the most frequent were floral motifs, either naturalistic or historicist, coming from the Gothic tradition, as well as animals, generally related to the iconography of fire, such as dragons or snakes.[603].
As a general rule, architects designed the wrought iron elements for their buildings, which were executed by blacksmiths. They were normally drawings, although Gaudí liked to make small molds in cardboard, wax, clay or plaster.[602] Both Domènech i Montaner and Puig i Cadafalch were generally inspired by Gothic ironwork, as can be seen in the entrance door of the Hospital de San Pablo, formed by vertical bars topped with geometric rosettes and crossed by two large spiral ellipses. Puig i Cadafalch combined Gothic roots with Central European influence at first, while later he sought a more Mediterranean style, as in the Amatller and Terrades houses. The most original was once again Gaudí, whose greatest inspiration is always found in nature, without ceasing to resort to mythical animals or heraldic motifs. We thus see its magnificent entrance gate to the Vicens house, inspired by the palm leaf; the dragon on the entrance gate to the Güell pavilions; the shield of Catalonia with the helmet and the phoenix from the entrance door to the Güell Palace; the doorknob of the Calvet house, in the shape of a cross that a bedbug hits - in allusion to sin; or the balconies of the Milà house, formed by sheets of twisted iron in abstract shapes, perhaps resembling crumpled paper or seaweed, if you have to look for a similarity.[604].
Among the architects, it is worth highlighting the designs of Pedro Falqués, who was municipal architect of Barcelona between 1889 and 1914. He was the author of the design of the lamp-banks on Passeig de Gracia, made up of a limestone bench with a ceramic coating, on which rises a wrought iron lamppost with a sinuous L-shaped line at the end of which the lantern hangs, a plant-type decoration and a finish with the coat of arms of Barcelona, a crown and a bat.[605] Likewise, he designed a type of fountain known as the Canaletas fountain, located on the Rambla with the Plaza de Catalunya, made of cast iron, with a cup-shaped structure with four taps and a column topped by four lampposts.[606].
Goldsmithing
Goldsmithing was a trade with great tradition in Catalonia since the Middle Ages. In 1869 the old guild was dissolved, allowing jewelry and goldsmith professionals to practice freely. In times of modernism they reached levels of great quality, as in the rest of the arts. Due to the deep-rooted tradition of this sector, there were various dynasties of goldsmiths who passed the baton from father to son; the most notable were the Masriera and the Carreras.[613] From the first comes the most prominent modernist goldsmith: Lluís Masriera. His father was a landscape painter, an activity that Lluís also carried out, trained in Paris, London and Geneva. In this last city he learned about enamel work, a technique that he perfected, achieving a type of translucent enamel known as "Barcelona enamel." Influenced by French symbolism and Japanese art, he made high-quality jewelry, in which female figures with a deliquescent appearance, so common in symbolism, predominated. Many of them were defined as "insect jewels" because they resemble the shape of these invertebrates. Among his works stands out the diadem that a group of Catalan citizens gave to Queen Victoria Eugenia on the day of her wedding to Alfonso XIII in 1906. Also dedicated to painting and scenography, he was president of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Jorge. The firm Masriera y Carreras—later Bagués-Masriera—still exists and has maintained a certain neo-modernist style, recalling the years of its greatest successes.[614].
The Carreras dynasty began in the 19th century. In the modernist era, Joaquim Carreras "Carreras (jewelers)") stood out, reaching levels of great perfection in enamel, almost parallel to the work of Lluís Masriera. In 1915 both firms merged.[615] Another illustrious dynasty was that of the Cabots, started by Francesc Cabot Ferrer, father of three brothers: Francesc, Emili and Joaquín Cabot Rovira. They developed a distinctly Catalan style, authors of original models of high quality. The father was the author of the crown of the Virgin of Montserrat (1880), while Joaquín - who was also a banker, writer and politician, as well as president of the Orfeón Catalán - created the crown of the Virgin of Queralt de Berga (1916).[616].
It should be noted that various sculptors also dedicated themselves to jewelry design, such as Josep Llimona, Eusebi Arnau, Emili Fontbona, Manolo Hugué, Julio González and Pablo Gargallo.[617].
Textile
The textile "Fabric (textile)") gained a great boom thanks to the cotton industry, not in vain Catalonia was a pioneer in Spain of the Industrial Revolution. Since the century, the so-called "indianas" stood out, painted or printed fabrics with themes generally inspired by nature (gardens, landscapes), or chinoiseries motifs - of French influence -, framed with garlands and laurel wreaths. A large collection is preserved in the Provincial Textile Museum of Terrassa.[618].
It is difficult to speak of modernist weaving as an art significantly related to this movement, since the textile industry is usually approached more from an economic-social point of view than from an artistic one and, on the other hand, weaving is a relatively perishable material, which survives with difficulty over time; On the other hand, it is subject to the vagaries of fashion and is not a product that is usually collected or preserved for museum or other reasons. Despite everything, although modernist textiles began somewhat late, in this artistic modality it lasted longer than in any other, since pieces in this style continued to be manufactured until the 1940s, due to its success.[619].
In interior decoration, the textile was used mainly in curtains, blinds, upholstery, carpets, rugs, screens, tablecloths, cushions and home linens, in which the modernist style began to be introduced in the mid-1890s, with a special influence from English Arts and Crafts - in fact, at this time numerous English textiles, as well as French, were imported. As materials, cotton, wool, mohair, silk, corduroy, velvet, linen and hemp were usually used, whether plain, embroidered, printed or carved (jacquards). Pegamoid was also used, a type of rubber that imitated leather and was used to upholster chairs. Another field of textile production was sumptuary, luxury pieces for exclusive objects, such as flags and banners, tapestries, damasks "Damascus (woven)") and liturgical clothing, in which luxurious fabrics were used, often with designs by renowned artists, such as Alexandre de Riquer, Sebastià Junyent, Pau Roig, Josep Pey, Aleix Clapés, Joaquim Vancells, Adrián Gual and Josep Pascó. At this time, many architects designed banners for political, religious and cultural associations - especially choirs and somatenes - which were very popular, such as Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch, Gallissà, Jujol, Sagnier, Rubió, Raspall, Masó, Pericas, Balcells, etc. Some of the most successful were those of the Orfeón Catalán, from Gallissà (1896); and that of the Catalan Union, by Riquer (1901).[620].
Among the fabric designers, it is worth highlighting Alexandre de Riquer: a versatile man, he stood out in almost all fields of the arts. He designed banners, tapestries and fabrics of all kinds, among which those made for the Sedera Franco-Española company between 1900 and 1915, specialized in silk neck scarves, stand out. Mateu Culell was one of the first professional industrial designers, who designed fabrics, rugs and prints for industry, as well as ceramics and jewelry. Set designers such as Francesc Soler Rovirosa, Oleguer Junyent and Salvador Alarma also designed fabrics, as well as cabinetmakers such as Francesc Vidal y Jevellí, Gaspar Homar and Joan Busquets - not in vain numerous pieces of furniture were upholstered. Ribera, Aurèlia Gispert and Blanca de Espanya. Some painters such as Lluïsa Vidal and Pepita Teixidor also designed fabrics.[622] Perhaps the most renowned is Aurora Gutiérrez Larraya, who stood out in the design of embroidery, especially prints, many of which became famous for their reproductions in the press.[252] In the field of clothing, fashion trends in Europe were followed, with a special English influence on men's clothing and French influence on women's clothing. The dressmakers Carolina Montagne and Maria Molist —better known as Maria de Mataró— stood out.[623].
Literature
En el terreno de la literatura, el concepto de un «modernismo catalán» es polémico, es difícil establecer su naturaleza y alcance, si es un movimiento separado de la literatura modernista española o no, o cual es su definición y características.[624] Según Alan Yates (Una generación sin novela, 1975), la literatura modernista en catalán nacería con la Exposición Universal de 1888 y finalizaría con la muerte de Joan Maragall en 1911. Para Eduardo Valentí, se iniciaría en 1881 y moriría en 1906, con la aparición del novecentismo.[625] Pese a todo, existe división en cuanto a considerarlo una tendencia, un movimiento o una etapa histórica. Según Joaquín Marco, no es una escuela literaria, ni un movimiento estético. Quizá su principal seña de identidad sea la afirmación de lo nuevo —lo «moderno»— frente a lo antiguo, una actitud de rebeldía, de iconoclastia, frente a las formas literarias anteriores.[626] Aun así, se perciben en su desarrollo las raíces posrománticas, aunque con un afán regenerador, intentando encontrar un lenguaje original.[627] El modernismo se opone al naturalismo "Naturalismo (literatura)") anterior, frente al que oponen una mayor espiritualidad.[628] Al contrario que las artes plásticas, la literatura modernista contó con escasa aceptación entre la clase burguesa, tanto por su temática moderna como por estar escrita en catalán, idioma que no empezó a consolidarse entre la clase burguesa hasta el novecentismo.[629].
El modernismo literario tuvo como primer objetivo la elaboración de una literatura en catalán plenamente moderna, alejada de las formas del pasado —especialmente las de los Jocs Florals—, renovada, de calidad y adaptada a los tiempos presentes. En ese sentido, su primer difusor fue la revista L'Avenç, de signo progresista, republicano y catalanista, liderada por jóvenes escritores como Narcís Oller, José Yxart, Joan Sardá, Jaume Massó, Raimon Casellas y Ramón D. Perés. Así como en la generación anterior el principal género cultivado fue la poesía, los editores y colaboradores de L'Avenç propugnaron la novela como el principal género de la modernidad, una reivindicación que comenzó con un artículo de Jaume Brossa en defensa de La febre d'or, una novela de Narcís Oller publicada en 1892. En consecuencia, el principal objetivo de la nueva literatura será la plasmación de la realidad. Según Raimon Casellas, cualquier fragmento de realidad es susceptible de convertirse en obra de arte, si este fragmento produce un choque emocional. El objetivo del arte ya no es la belleza, sino la emoción. Por otro lado, los nuevos temas de la literatura giran en torno a la ciudad y la vida urbana, las diferencias sociales, la pobreza, la miseria, la soledad, la bohemia, la prostitución, la mendicidad, la delincuencia, en paralelo a la pintura «negra» de Mir y Nonell.[630].
La base programática de la literatura modernista se fundamentó en el nacionalismo y el progresismo, con el objetivo de modernizar la sociedad catalana, especialmente la burguesía como clase dirigente, conformando sus gustos e ideas. En ese sentido, Joan Lluís Marfany definió el modernismo como la transición «de cultura regional, peculiar y tradicionalista en cultura nacional, normal y moderna».[631] Por otro lado, sus raíces ideológicas y estéticas se encuentran en la cultura europea del momento, marcada en lo filosófico por el positivismo, matizado ya en estos años por el vitalismo introducido por Nietzsche —que fue traducido por Maragall en 1893— y por el irracionalismo presente en la obra de Henri Bergson, Herbert Spencer y Arthur Schopenhauer. Estos autores inciden en la primacía del yo, en una perspectiva individualista en que la realidad se percibe a través de la vida interior del individuo, de sus emociones y sensaciones, mientras que el exterior resulta falaz. Pese a ello, en el modernismo se percibe también una corriente naturalista, procedente de la influencia de Émile Zola, ya que se percibe como algo regenerador y que conduce a la modernidad, el máximo objetivo de los modernistas. También incidieron poderosamente las corrientes simbolista y prerrafaelita, defensoras de la corriente estética del decadentismo, otro de los principios básicos de la literatura modernista. Así, frente a la objetividad del arte realista, se defiende la subjetividad, la vía irracional hacia el conocimiento. Los principales modelos en este sentido fueron Baudelaire, Mallarmé, Verlaine y Rimbaud. Otros referentes literarios de la época fueron: Oscar Wilde, Joris-Karl Huysmans, E.T.A. Hoffmann, Edgar Allan Poe, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Pierre Louÿs, Auguste Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, Henrik Ibsen, Maurice Maeterlinck, Émile Verhaeren y Gabriele D'Annunzio.[632].
Con base en el decadentismo, la literatura modernista se centra en lo subjetivo, lo emotivo, en el pesimismo, el tedio de vivir, la angustia existencial, frente a lo cual se presenta como solución el culto a la belleza, al arte por el arte, a figuras como el bohemio "Bohemia (cultura)") y el dandi, que intentan extraer de la vida lo que vale la pena para satisfacción personal. La literatura se centra en el misterio, lo siniestro, lo prohibido, lo marginal, la melancolía, el exotismo, con personajes como vagabundos, dementes, moribundos, degenerados, así como una visión de la mujer que oscila entre la donna angelicata y la femme fatale.[633].
Cabe reseñar la importancia de numerosas revistas literarias y artísticas que sirvieron de vehículo de propagación del modernismo, como La Renaixensa, L'Avenç, Catalònia, Pèl & Ploma, Quatre Gats o Joventut "Joventut (revista)").[634] También en esta época contamos con numerosos periódicos, algunos en castellano y otros en catalán, como Diario de Barcelona, La Vanguardia, El Liberal "El Liberal (Barcelona)"), La Publicidad "La Publicidad (Barcelona)") o La Ilustració Catalana.[635] Algunas de estas revistas marcaron en cierta forma las diversas etapas que sufrió la literatura modernista: una primera regeneracionista centrada en L'Avenç (1889-1893), otra decadentista promulgada desde La Vanguardia y Diario de Barcelona (1894-1897), una tercera de nuevo regeneracionista impulsada por Catalònia (1898-1900) y una última de estética más uniformizada y credo catalanista en torno a Joventut (1900-1906). En la primera, los redactores más significativos fueron Jaume Massó, Ramón Casas, Raimon Casellas y Jaume Brossa; en la segunda, los escritores más relevantes fueron Raimon Casellas —de nuevo—, Santiago Rusiñol y Joan Maragall; en la tercera destacaron de nuevo Maragall y Rusiñol, así como Joaquín Casas Carbó, Ignasi Iglesias y Pompeu Fabra; en la cuarta fueron decisivos Joaquim Pena i Costa, Frederic Pujulà y Carmen Karr.[636].
Narrative
The modernist narrative emerged at a time when Catalan prose was barely being consolidated, little developed during the Renaixença —barely limited to the work of Narcís Oller— and with little acceptance by the public. Added to this is the poor development of a narrative language within the Catalan language - which will be developed more fully with the Fabrian reform - and the lack of differentiated content from the previous literary school, the realist one. Likewise, there were few publishers and few critics who analyzed the new developments that emerged. Thus, the first modernist novel, Els sots feréstecs, by Raimon Casellas, did not appear until 1901, so the modernist narrative can be limited to the 1900s, perhaps at most until 1915, the year of publication of Ildaribal by Alfons Maseras.[637].
Modernist novelists were looking for a subjective language, of psychological introspection, with a certain lyricism, for which they were inspired by the work of authors such as Paul Bourget and Henry James.[638] They went from the omniscient narrator of realism to capturing the consciousness of the character and from a single intrigue to multiple themes, to a fragmented reality, as captured by human subjectivity. Narrated speech or internal monologue was used as a technique, with a "free indirect style" that comes from Flaubert. Resources such as adjectivization, dialectisms, phonetic contrasts, diminutives and augmentatives, onomatopoeias or ellipses abounded.[639] One perceives in the modernist narrative the crisis of reason typical of the time—due to the influence above all of Nietzsche—which translates into a struggle between human beings and their environment. The modernist characters are misfits, subjected to fate, incapable of fighting against their destiny, against which they can only oppose their will. It is a struggle between matter and spirit, between collectivity and individuality, between good and evil, in order to achieve redemption, self-realization. However, nature often prevails and man finds annihilation, hence the pain and frustration that underlies modernist novels.[640].
First of all, it is worth mentioning Apeles Mestres, a member of the previous generation and initiated into Romanticism, from which he evolved towards modernism, a style in which he cultivated both narrative, poetry and theater. Within prose he preferably cultivated biography, memoirs, popular legends and traditional paintings.[641] Among his works the following stand out: La perera (1908), La casa vella (1912) and L'espasa (1917).[642].
Raimon Casellas can be considered the father of the modernist novel, thanks to the appearance in 1901 of Els sots feréstecs. Casellas sought to create a modern narrative, replacing realistic detail with descriptive, plastic prose, inspired by symbolism, where chiaroscuro and suggestion predominate, all through two narrative techniques: generalizing synthesis, by which reality is described through the author's temperament, replacing it with something similar to a caricature; and, in the opposite sense, influence reality from subjectivity, transfiguring it into an artistic ideal. The result is a conflict between reality and ideal, a contradiction that is evident throughout modernist narrative.[643].
Poetry
At this time, modernist poetry experienced a period of profound renewal, in which an attempt was made to overcome the Romanticism of the Jocs Florals and connect with the new European currents, in an effort to modernize it, the final objective always inherent to modernism. Faced with the floral rhetoric and its traditional theme (Love, Homeland, Faith), the aim was to renew the language and content of poetry, with a greater degree of verism derived from the affinity between the creator and his work, which is done through "impression", in line with the literary symbolism practiced in Europe - of which the Belgian (Maeterlinck, Verhaeren) had greater prestige compared to the French (Verlaine, Mallarmé) -. The symbolist influence was denoted in the description of emotional states based on real experiences, all through metaphors that express sensations and feelings. However, since 1898 the symbolist influence was declining, criticized for its little or no social connection, in search of a greater commitment to society and the evils that afflict it. Thus, Joan Maragall would be one of the main critics of decadentism and its pessimistic and individualistic vision of the human being. The new references will be Gabriele D'Annunzio and Walt Whitman. Faced with the symbolist duality of man-nature, an integrative vision is offered between the human being, nature and art, which Maragall synthesizes in his theory of the "living word", in which he conceives Life and Beauty as a whole, where the poet is the only creator and his word, the only truth. This results in "spontaneism", in which all the events of life are integrated into a cosmic harmony of a cyclical and positive nature. Finally, starting in 1900, Symbolist poetry again gained followers, this time with greater influence from Parnassianism and Pre-Raphaelism, with a new generation of young poets defending the sonnet as an ideal stanza, a more classicist current that would lead to Noucentisme.[655].
As in the previous section, Apeles Mestres must be mentioned first. He was a great innovator of poetic language, which he sought to modernize, while at the same time he tried to create new genres that mixed poetry with prose, drama, ballads, stories and legends, either in lyrical dramas or in narrative poems. After several works somewhere between Romanticism and realism, his most modernist work was Liliana (1907), of Pre-Raphaelite influence, where he combined poetry, drawing and graphic design.[641].
The greatest exponent of modernist poetry was Joan Maragall. He was influenced by Romanticism, especially German - and, in particular, Goethe -, while at the local level he was heir to Jacinto Verdaguer. The influence of Nietzsche is also perceived in his work. To this he combined a strong national feeling and a pantheistic attitude towards nature.[656] Maragall was a reference of modernism, who lived as a professional of literary creation and acted as an intellectual in multiple areas of society.[657] In 1888 he published his first important poem, , which is a manifesto of his poetic creed, understanding poetry as an inalienable vocation fruit of inspiration, a unique quality of the poet, which reveals in his work the beauty of the world. His first compilation book of poems was (1895), while he combined his poetic work with collaborations with newspapers and magazines, especially and . He was also a translator of Nietzsche, whose philosophy is perceptible in poems such as and . In those years he also wrote some decadent poems, more out of fashion than conviction (, 1894). From 1896 he began a new stage of vitalist sign, to which he added a greater ideology, related to Catalanism, which he expressed in (1900), where he approached popular poetry and themes of Catalan tradition, as in the first part of .[658].
Theater
The theater was one of the main means of dissemination of modernism, by combining literary texts with their staging, where scenography took on a primary role, which also captured the main characteristics of modernist art. Theater was a reflection in these years of the idea of "total art" formulated by Wagner with his theory of Gesamtkunstwerk. Thus, the performing arts gained a great boom at this time, thanks to the representation of native works and foreign authors, with two differentiated aesthetic lines: the naturalistic, represented by Ibsen, Strindberg and Chekhov; and the symbolist, led by Maeterlinck, D'Annunzio and Gerhart Hauptmann.[679] The main stage of the modernist theater was the Teatro Romea "Teatro Romea (Barcelona)") in Barcelona, which hosted the works of the new modern playwrights, such as Rusiñol, Gual or Iglesias, aimed at a more popular audience, while the bourgeoisie, not yet identified with the new literary movement, preferred the program official of the Teatro Principal "Teatro Principal (Barcelona)").[680].
It is worth mentioning first of all Ángel Guimerá, the great figure of the theater of the previous generation, in a style that oscillated between Romanticism and realism and who, in his maturity, adhered for a time to modernism. At the turn of the century, the successes of young modernist writers led him to try the new style, in works such as Les monges de Sant Aimant (1895), Arran de terra (1901), La Santa Espina "La Santa Espina (sardana)") (1907), La Reina Jove (1911) and Al cor de la nit (1918), based mostly on myths and legends, with characters of great symbolic value.[681][682] Another representative of the previous generation who lived through a modernist period was Apeles Mestres. His dramatic works ranged between naturalism and realism: La presentella (1908), Liliana (theatrical version of his collection of poems from 1907, premiered in 1911).[683].
The great figure of modernist theater was Santiago Rusiñol, who was the main representative of the symbolist line, whose main leitmotiv was the confrontation between the idealistic individual and the pragmatic and petty society of his time. As has been seen in his role as a painter, Rusiñol was a bohemian artist, dedicated entirely to art thanks to the financial support of his family, who belonged to the textile bourgeoisie. Rusiñol lived his life in a dual way, oscillating between an exultant vitalism that he showed in public and an interior filled with sadness and skepticism, which he controlled with drug addiction. Thus, his works move between humor and satire, with a large component of decadent lyricism, as well as a certain costumbrista background. His first success as a playwright was the monologue L'home de l'orgue (1890). In the years at the turn of the century he cultivated the decadent lyrical painting, with works such as (1898), (1900) and (1901). From 1902 he switched to costumbrismo, in a line of regeneration and social criticism, in which he had greater success, with comedies such as (1902) and dramas such as (1902), (1903), (1904) and (1906). His greatest success was the comedy (originally a novel from 1909, adapted to the theater and released in 1917), a work with an autobiographical tone that raises the relationship between the artist and society. Since 1907 he cultivated a more popular theater, with a greater humorous tone, either in the format of a farce (, 1908), a farce (, 1912; , 1914) or a comedy (, 1909; , 1912). His last drama was (1918).[684].
Music
La música tuvo gran relevancia durante el siglo , potenciada por el surgimiento de las orquestas sinfónicas. La principal corriente musical de inicios de siglo fue la del Romanticismo, representada por compositores como Fernando Sor, Ramón Carnicer, Mateo Ferrer, Ramón Vilanova y Marià Obiols. En 1844 se fundó la Sociedad Filarmónica de Barcelona y, en 1886, el Conservatorio Municipal de Música de Barcelona, mientras que, en 1847, se creó el Gran Teatro del Liceo, en 1891 el Orfeón Catalán y, en 1908, el Palacio de la Música Catalana.[696].
En sentido estricto no se puede hablar de una música modernista, sino más bien de un período que aglutina a compositores de diversas tendencias y sensibilidades. Pese a todo, fue una etapa rica y fructífera para la música catalana, con autores que alcanzaron cotas de gran calidad.[697] Desde Europa se recibieron múltiples influencias, desde los últimos vestigios del Romanticismo —en Cataluña gozó de mucho éxito en especial la ópera italiana de Rossini, Bellini, Verdi y Donizetti—, pasando por la singular figura de Wagner —que en Cataluña gozó de un enorme éxito, que cristalizó en la fundación de la Asociación Wagneriana de Barcelona en 1901— hasta llegar al impresionismo musical de Debussy y Ravel. Por otro lado, en estos años fueron surgiendo en diversos países escuelas nacionales que impulsaron el renacer cultural y musical de sus respectivas naciones en lo que se vino a denominar nacionalismo musical, con representantes como Borodin, Musorgski, Rimski-Korsakov, Dvořák, Smetana, Bartók, Grieg y Sibelius, que se reflejó igualmente en España con Manuel de Falla, Joaquín Rodrigo, Francisco Asenjo Barbieri o Joaquín Turina, y que contó con representantes catalanes como Pedrell, Albéniz y Granados.[698].
En este período se popularizó la música coral gracias a los llamados «coros de Clavé», que aglutinaban la música con la fraternidad obrera.[699] José Anselmo Clavé perteneció a la generación anterior a la modernista, pero su obra dejó una profunda huella. Su proyecto pretendía aglutinar la música con la regeneración de la clase obrera, gracias al espíritu comunitario de las sociedades corales. En 1845 fundó la sociedad L'Aurora, a la que siguieron La Fraternitat y Euterpe, que desembocaron en las Societats Euterpenses, que contaron con ochenta y cinco filiales y llegaron a contabilizar más de dos mil coristas. Sucesor de Clavé fue Josep Rodoreda, un músico modesto, pero solvente, que perfeccionó las técnicas corales y transformó los coros inicialmente masculinos en mixtos.[700].
La música coral evolucionó gracias al surgimiento de los orfeones: en 1885 se celebró en el Palacio de Bellas Artes de Barcelona un concurso de orfeones —ganado por el de Bilbao— que causó un gran impacto y conllevó la creación, en 1891, del Orfeón Catalán, fundado por Lluís Millet y Amadeo Vives. Estos compositores promovieron un nuevo estilo musical que, partiendo de las raíces populares catalanas, entroncase con la música coetánea europea. El Orfeón promovió la creación del Palacio de la Música Catalana, donde estableció su sede y donde se sintetizaron todas las artes del modernismo (arquitectura, escultura, decoración, música, literatura), convirtiéndose en el símbolo por excelencia de la nueva cultura catalana.[701].
La importancia otorgada en el siglo a la voz comportó el surgimiento de un nuevo género, el lied, una canción lírica consistente por lo general en la musicalización de un poema, interpretada por una voz generalmente solista y un acompañamiento musical, preferentemente de piano. A finales de siglo surgió con fuerza en Cataluña el llamado «lied catalán», que tendría un gran auge hasta mediados del siglo . El lied comportó el surgimiento de nuevas formas expresivas y el perfeccionamiento de la técnica musical, al tiempo que revalorizó el patrimonio musical popular en busca de nuevas fuentes de inspiración, como serían el trovadorismo medieval o la música bucólica pastoril.[702].
La música sinfónica tuvo en esta época menos predicamento que la coral o la operística y se circunscribió a pequeños estamentos culturales. En 1866 se creó la Sociedad de Conciertos del Prado Catalán y, en 1872, la Sociedad Barcelonesa de Cuartetos, que ofrecían obras sinfónicas de compositores generalmente románticos. Pero sería casi únicamente la Orquesta del Liceo la que ofrecía ocasionalmente conciertos sinfónicos. Uno de sus principales promotores fue Antoni Nicolau, que dirigió varios de estos conciertos que, sin embargo, no tuvieron mucho éxito e incluso fueron duramente criticados. Sería ya con el cambio de siglo y con la llegada de obras de compositores modernos como Mahler, Bruckner o Richard Strauss que la música sinfónica comenzaría a tener éxito. Así, surgieron nuevas entidades, como la Sociedad Catalana de Conciertos en 1892 y la Sociedad Filarmónica de Barcelona en 1897.[703].
Cabe señalar también la importante herencia dejada por Pep Ventura, un compositor de la generación anterior que, al igual que Clavé, dejó una importante impronta por su recuperación de la música popular y folclórica, especialmente en relación con el género de la sardana. Fue el introductor de la tenora, un instrumento que otorgaría una nueva sonoridad al género y lo convertiría en una especialidad inconfundible. Gracias a su intuición melódica, dejó piezas de gran calidad en su género y que gozaron de gran popularidad. La sardana se interpreta con una agrupación musical llamada cobla, de la que surgieron muchas en esta época, como La Principal de La Bisbal (1888). Por otro lado, la música se acompaña de la danza de igual nombre, consolidada en esta época como la danza popular catalana por antonomasia. Cultivaron también el género de la sardana Enric Morera —autor de una de las más famosas, La Santa Espina "La Santa Espina (sardana)") (1907), con texto de Ángel Guimerá—, Francisco Pujol, Antoni Nicolau y Vicenç Bou.[704].
A finales de siglo se popularizó una canción que con el tiempo se convertiría en el himno catalán, Els segadors, una antigua canción popular que fue adaptada entre 1892 (música, Francisco Alió) y 1899 (letra, Emili Guanyavents). Aunque en principio no tenía ninguna connotación reivindicativa ni patriótica, fue adoptada como himno nacional por el catalanismo, sin reconocimiento oficial hasta su consagración por la Generalidad en 1993.[705].
El padre del nacionalismo musical catalán fue Felipe Pedrell, de relevancia en toda la península gracias a su labor musicológica y su estudio del patrimonio popular. Pedrell fue el fundador de una nueva escuela catalana, con obras de gran solvencia técnica, pero cierta indefinición estética, ya que se movió entre la influencia de la ópera italiana y la del wagnerianismo —fue uno de los introductores de Wagner en Cataluña—.[706] Fue autor de óperas, zarzuelas, obras religiosas y música de cámara.[306].
Los dos grandes compositores del modernismo catalán fueron Isaac Albéniz y Enrique Granados. El primero fue pianista y compositor, que aunó raíces folclóricas con la influencia del impresionismo francés.[707] Estudió en Madrid, donde residió unos años y, posteriormente, realizó varias giras de conciertos por Hispanoamérica. Poco después, completó estudios en Bruselas y regresó a Cataluña. También residió un tiempo en París, donde conoció a Casas y Rusiñol, quienes le introdujeron a su regreso a la tertulia de Els Quatre Gats, donde realizó varios conciertos. Fue autor de ópera, zarzuela y música sinfónica, siendo de destacar su suite Iberia "Iberia (Albéniz)") (1906).[708].
Granados fue discípulo de Pedrell, al tiempo que estudió piano con Juan Bautista Pujol. Por su maestro recibió la influencia de Wagner, que fue determinante en su trayectoria, especialmente en el concepto de «obra de arte total», que le llevó a relacionarse con diversos escritores para sus obras, como Adrián Gual o Apeles Mestres. También denotó la influencia del Romanticismo de Chopin, Schumann o Schubert. Completó su formación en París con Charles-Auguste de Bériot, donde conoció a Debussy y D'Indy. Durante un tiempo fue pianista de café, hasta que empezó a cosechar algunos éxitos. En 1900 fundó la Sociedad de Conciertos Clásicos, así como la Academia Granados. Su obra fue una de las más internacionales dentro del panorama musical catalán, hecho que le comportó diversas críticas por alejarse del acervo popular. Destacaron sus obras para piano, como 12 Danzas españolas y Capricho español, así como música de cámara y diversas óperas.[709].
Junto a ellos conviene destacar a Enric Morera, Amadeo Vives y Lluís Millet. El primero fue discípulo de Pedrell y amplió estudios en Bélgica, donde recibió la influencia del impresionismo francés. Fue autor de óperas, música sinfónica, coral, de cámara y para piano, así como sardanas.[710] También armonizó numerosas canciones populares y musicalizó diversas obras de Santiago Rusiñol y Ángel Guimerá. En 1895 fundó la coral Catalunya Nova.[361] Vives se formó como pianista. Sus obras gozaron de gran éxito y fue uno de los protagonistas de las tertulias barcelonesas, donde entabló amistad con personajes como Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch, Ramón Casas, Isidro Nonell y Pablo Picasso. En 1897 se instaló en Madrid, donde desarrolló casi toda su carrera y donde ejerció también de empresario con tres teatros: Zarzuela, Cómico y Eslava. Fue también profesor en el Conservatorio de Música de Madrid.[711] Fue autor de óperas, zarzuelas y música coral, como su famoso L'emigrant, sobre un poema de Verdaguer.[712] Millet fue compositor y director de orquesta, discípulo de Pedrell. Fue director vitalicio del Orfeón Catalán y propulsó e investigó la música popular catalana. Compuso obras corales (El cant dels ocells, El cant de la senyera), canciones populares armonizadas (La dama d'Aragó, El comte Arnau), música sinfónica y para piano y orquesta (Catalanesques).[710] También fundó la Revista Musical Catalana y fue catedrático del Conservatorio de Música de Barcelona.[713].
Cabe citar igualmente a compositores como: Francisco Alió, destacó como compositor de obras para piano y canto, así como fue un importante folclorista;[707] Josep Barberà, discípulo de Pedrell, fue compositor y profesor en el Conservatorio del Liceo, realizó obras para piano, canto y orquesta, entre las que destacan dos sinfonías;[714] Joan Borràs de Palau, compositor y crítico musical, destacó como liederista (Voreta la mar, 1896);[714] Vicenç Bou, compositor de sardanas, entre las que destacan L'alegria del poble y Mirant al mar;[714] Amadeu Cuscó, autor de música de cámara, sinfónica, litúrgica y coral;[714] Juli Garreta, autor de obras sinfónicas de orquestación germánica, como la Suite Empordanesa;[715] Vicenç Maria Gibert, compositor, organista y musicógrafo, discípulo de Pedrell y Millet, autor de obras orquestales y corales, así como canciones populares armonizadas;[715] Joan Lamote de Grignon, compositor, pianista y director de orquesta, autor de obras sinfónicas, óperas y lieder;[715] Miguel Llobet, compositor y guitarrista, instrumento para el que arregló numerosas canciones populares catalanas, como El rossinyol;[715] Joan Llongueras, autor de ensayos y canciones e introductor en Cataluña del método de gimnasia rítmica de Jacques-Dalcroze;[715] Joaquín Malats, compositor y pianista, autor de música de cámara, serenatas, mazurcas, danzas para piano y unas Impresiones de España para orquesta;[710] Juan Manén, compositor y violinista, autor de obras sinfónicas, óperas, ballets y sardanas;[710] Rafael Martínez Valls, autor de música de cámara y religiosa, así como zarzuelas;[710] Apeles Mestres, escritor y dibujante que también compuso varias canciones de evocación rococó;[710] Antoni Nicolau, formado en París, fue autor de óperas, obras sinfónicas y corales;[716] Jaime Pahissa, discípulo de Morera, englobable en el modernismo en su juventud, ya que posteriormente evolucionó hacia el vanguardismo, autor de óperas, obras corales y sinfónicas, música de cámara y para piano;[717] Francisco Pujol, discípulo de Millet, compuso obras religiosas, para canto, piano, sardanas y canciones populares armonizadas;[717] Josep Rodoreda, compositor, pianista y director de orquesta, continuador de la obra coral de Clavé y fundador de la Banda y la Escuela Municipal de Música de Barcelona, recordado por su himno Virolai;[718] Luis Romeu, sacerdote, compositor y organista, autor de obras religiosas y armonización de canciones populares;[719] José Sancho Marraco, organista y compositor de música religiosa, así como canciones populares y sardanas;[719] Francisco Tárrega, compositor y guitarrista, creó la escuela moderna de interpretación de guitarra clásica, autor de numerosas obras para este instrumento, la mayoría de aire orientalizante;[719] y Ricardo Viñes, compositor y pianista, condiscípulo de Ravel, denotó la influencia del impresionismo francés y destacó en sus obras para piano.[712].
Opera
The opera was very popular during this century, initially performed at the Teatro de la Santa Cruz (Teatro Principal "Teatro Principal (Barcelona)") from 1838) and, from 1847, at the Gran Teatro del Liceo, which would become the heart of Barcelona opera. Also during this century, zarzuela was very successful, performed mainly in the Teatro Principal, as well as in other stages, such as the Teatro del Bosque, the Nuevo, the Tívoli and the Odeón.[720].
Among the main performers is the tenor Francisco Viñas, who debuted at the Liceo in 1888 with Wagner's Lohengrin, a role he repeated at the La Scala Theater in Milan. Specialized in Wagnerian roles, he also performed Tannhäuser "Tannhäuser (opera)") and Parsifal, as well as several Verdian operas. He worked in major theaters around the world, achieving notable success. In 1963, an international singing competition was created in Barcelona that bears his name.[721] The baritone Ramón Blanchart debuted in the 1880s, but it was in the following decade when he reached the peak of his career, especially with his interpretation of Iago in Verdi's Otello "Otello (Verdi)"), at the Scala in Milan, and Falstaff "Falstaff (Verdi)"), also by Verdi, in the Lyceum in 1896.[722] Avelina Carrera was an internationally famous soprano, who debuted at the age of eighteen at the Lyceum with Lohengrin by Wagner, in 1889; The following year he achieved great success with Bizet's La jolie fille de Perth. In 1894 she sang in Moscow before Tsar Alexander III and, in 1896, she starred in the world premiere of Umberto Giordano's Andrea Chénier at La Scala in Milan. In 1899 she was Brünnhilde in Die Walküre and, in 1901, she performed Verdi's Aida. In 1906 she performed Bruniselda by Enric Morera.[723] Josefina Huguet was a light soprano, who stood out in the roles of Ofelia in Hamlet "Hamlet (Thomas)") by Thomas, Gilda in Rigoletto by Verdi and Dinorah in the eponymous opera by Meyerbeer.[722] María Barrientos was also a light soprano, who debuted in 1898 with La sonnambula by Bellini, one of her star roles, along with Dinorah, La Traviata, Rigoletto, Lakmé, Hamlet and Mignon. Bizet.[725].
Felipe Pedrell was one of the pioneers of opera in Catalonia. In his early works, some of them in Italian, he showed the influence of Italian opera, as in L'ultimo abenzerraggio (1874), Quasimodo (1875) and Cleopatra (1878). Later it denoted the Wagnerian influence: I Pirinei (1902), La Celestina "La Celestina (opera)") (1904).[726].
Dance
Classical dance (or ballet) developed notably in this century, with two main stages: the Gran Teatro del Liceo and the Teatro Principal.[741] In the century, spectacle dance in Catalonia had three main variants: the pantomimic ballet or "plot ballet", first performed by Italian or French dancers, until Catalan representatives emerged; the Spanish dance or «bolero "Bolero (Spanish dance)"), which had one of its main centers in Barcelona, along with Madrid and Seville; and opera ballet. In general, in this century, choreographies made with typically Spanish elements, such as tambourines, rattles and castanets, or bullfighter or gypsy costumes, were successful, which even foreign dancers took on, since choreographies from other countries were generally poorly received by the public. In the last years of the century, the period of the appearance of modernism, the main ballet shows were those held at the Lyceum, among which were premieres such as Clio or the Triumph of Venus by Joan Goula (1889), Messalina by Giuseppe Giaquinto") (1890), Rodope by Paolo Giorza (1891), Excelsior by Romualdo Marenco (1892), Coppélia by Léo Delibes (1894) and Die Puppenfee by Josef Bayer (1895). Some operas also incorporated ballet, such as Tannhäuser "Tannhäuser (opera)") by Wagner (1887), Carmen "Carmen (opera)") by Bizet (1888) and Samson et Dalila by Saint-Saëns (1897).[742].
Already in the 19th century, the main point of reference continued to be the Lyceum, increasingly dedicated to the institutionalization of a quality choreographic school. Pauleta Pàmies, one of the most famous dancers between the years 1870-1890, dedicated herself to teaching in her adulthood, being a dance teacher at the Liceo, where she trained a new generation of dancers. Despite everything, the first two decades of the century were not very prolific in ballet, due to the political upheavals of the time, which did not favor shows. One of the most relevant premieres was the two-act ballet Les deux pigeons by André Messager (1913). The majority of figures were foreign, especially French and Italian.[743] In the first years of the century, contemporary dance was introduced, whose main representative was Tórtola Valencia: born in Seville to a Catalan father, she developed a personal, intuitive and exotic style, influenced by Isadora Duncan, with which she achieved international success. In 1912 he debuted at the Novedades "Teatro Novedades (Barcelona)") in Barcelona and, that same year, he performed Lakmé at the Liceo. Retired in 1930, she settled in Barcelona, where she spent the rest of her days.[744].
As for popular dances, the most widespread at this time was the sardana, which enjoyed a period of splendor thanks to the revitalization of it by the composer Pep Ventura. It is a group dance that is performed forming a circle with the dancers holding hands in pairs, with a dance performed with the feet, in short and long steps. The music is performed by a cobla, made up of a wind band of eleven instruments and a double bass. It is an evolution of a previous dance, the , of religious origin, which over time became a ceremonial and festive dance, a type of dance that could date back to the ancient Greek choirs. Towards the middle of the century the became the “sardana short”, while later the “long” would appear, which is the one that still exists. Its origin is in Empordà, from where it would later spread to all of Catalonia, becoming the most typically Catalan dance between the end of the century and the beginning of the 19th century. Other popular dances are the , the cane dance and the gypsy dance. At this time, numerous groups of dancers emerged, called , one of the most popular being the Esbart Català de Dansaires, created in Barcelona in 1908.[745].
Photograph
After the invention of photography at the beginning of the century, the first photograph in all of Spain was taken in Barcelona, taken with a daguerreotype on November 10, 1839 in the Pla de Palau by Ramón Alabern.[746] Since then, the process was technically perfected and more and more artists, professionals or simply amateurs dedicated to photography emerged. Since 1850, with the appearance of the positive-negative technique, the procedure became popular.[747] In 1888 the Kodak camera "Kodak Camera (1888)") appeared, which took photographs with the push of a button, so anyone could use it. The democratization of this new technology forced professional photographers to seek a more artistic means of expression, to differentiate themselves from amateurs. New techniques emerged for artistic and professional photographers, such as airbrush or rubber dichromate, which allowed photography to be worked in layers, even applying brushes, in such a way that brought them closer to techniques such as lithography and etching.[748].
The widespread use of photography in Catalonia came with the celebration of the Universal Exhibition of 1888. Until then it had been practically limited to landscape and portraiture, but, with the Exhibition, it began to be used with increasing presence in the journalistic media, as a testimony of current events. It was then that two relevant figures of the new art were established: Antonio Esplugas and Pablo Audouard. Both accurately captured the atmosphere and all the relevant events of the Exhibition, even with aerial photographs, captured from balloons.[749].
On the other hand, in these years photography left the studio and began to be done in nature, just like painting au plein air. An association that promoted this use was the Excursionist Center of Catalonia, which, through the organization of excursions, led to the creation of a large archive of landscapes and postcards of towns and monuments throughout the Catalan territory. Photography applied to science also emerged, especially astronomy, such as those taken at the Fabra Observatory by José Comas y Solá; or in medicine, such as those by Jaime Ferrán and Clúa, some of them under the microscope, or in the field of radiography, the first taken in 1896 by Cèsar Comas.[750].
The work of archiving photographs also began at this time, with Adolf Mas Ginestà standing out in this field, a photographer specialized in art, architecture and archaeology, concerned with the cataloging of the Catalan artistic heritage, which gave rise to the Mas Archive, currently at the Amatller Institute of Hispanic Art. Mas was one of the main collectors of modernist art and even worked for several architects and painters of the movement.[751] Another photographer who documented the work of modernist artists was Francesc Serra i Dimas, who in 1903 made a series of reports of various artists working in their workshops, which he compiled in 1905 in the album Our artists.[752].
In the documentary and photojournalism field, it is worth highlighting the work of Josep Brangulí and Alejandro Merletti. The first worked as a reporter for La Vanguardia, masterfully reflecting the life and events of Catalan society at the time. The Italian Merletti settled in Barcelona in 1889 and became famous for using a motorcycle with a sidecar to travel with the team. One of his best works was monitoring the court-martial of Francisco Ferrer Guardia in 1909, for which he used a mini-camera. Another area where photography stood out was in sports, which favored the appearance of specialized newspapers, such as El Mundo Deportivo (1906).[753].
Finally, in the field of artistic photography, the so-called pictorialism emerged in these years, a movement that claimed the artisticity of the photographic medium, whose best representatives in Catalonia were Pere Casas Abarca and Joan Vilatobà. The first, nephew of the sculptor Venancio Vallmitjana, made a series of study images that reflected different currents within modernism, such as symbolism, pre-Raphaeliteism and orientalism, with allegorical and religious references, although without sometimes disdaining eroticism. He also made photographs and advertising posters, in a style indebted to Alexandre de Riquer. Vilatobà was a painter and photographer, in a symbolist style, specialized in portraits, interiors and "Nude (artistic genre)" nudes, as well as landscapes, which denote the influence of Modesto Urgell. His artisticity basically comes from composition, since he almost never made retouches. On the other hand, at this time the first photographic exhibitions emerged and photography was even included as a modality in artistic competitions, such as the Third General Exhibition of Fine Arts and Artistic Industries of Barcelona (1896). In 1905, the San Lucas Artistic Circle included photography as its fourth section, after painting, sculpture and architecture/decorative arts.[754].
Cinema
The modernist period coincided chronologically with the invention of the cinematograph by the Lumière brothers in 1895. Even so, since it was an art in its infancy, it did not have a specific link with this style, so it is not possible to speak of a modernist cinema, only a "cinema of the modernist era", otherwise of little production. In its beginnings, cinema was considered more of a scientific advance than an art, so it was not especially welcomed by the cultural elites. Until practically the mid-1910s, cinema did not acquire artisticity, with figures such as D. W. Griffith or Erich von Stroheim, just when modernism was coming to an end.[755].
The first film screening took place in Barcelona in 1896, made by the Lumière brothers. These first films were animated photography, without a narrative sense, and were made at fairs, commercial premises, hotels or photography studios. After this exhibition, Fructuós Gelabert, a science and technology enthusiast, built his own camera and in 1897 shot Riña en un café, the first film made in Spain. This was followed by others such as Departure of the workers from the España Industrial factory (1897), Visit to Barcelona by the Queen Regent Doña María Cristina and Don Alfonso XIII (1898) and Arrival of a train at Barcelona North Station (1898).[756].
After these first experiences, cinema began to gain popularity as a spectacle and the first theaters dedicated exclusively to its exhibition were opened, promoted by promoters such as Lluís Macaya or Baltasar Abadal. Despite everything, during these first years cinema was alien to the modernist movement, present only in the genre of advertising, which, as in any other sector, at that time had a modernist aesthetic, or in the decoration of movie theaters.[757].
The first foray of the modernist movement into new art were the "talking films" at the Sala Mercè, a venue inaugurated in 1904 by the painter Luis Graner. Designed by Gaudí, this room was designed to offer all types of artistic shows, including cinema. Specifically, they focused on two: “musical visions,” which combined staged texts with music; and "spoken film projections", consisting of filmed tapes accompanied by a text recited by actors. The director of all these shows was Adrián Gual, the first artist dedicated to the new art, until then practiced by technicians or businessmen. In total, twenty-two of these projections were produced, all of them in the comic genre, of which unfortunately none survive. Some of them were written by Gual himself and actors from his company Teatre Íntim participated. On the other hand, Segundo de Chomón, later director and pioneer of cinema, participated as camera operator in some of them. Three documentary films about artists of the moment—therefore, modernists—were also made in this room: the first, from 1905, featured Modesto Urgell, Ramón Casas, Carles Vidiella, Arcadio Mas, Josep Llimona and Santiago Rusiñol. In the others, other artists also appeared, both plastic artists, musicians and writers. All three are of unknown author. Since 1905, the Sala Mercè focused on musical visions and the occasional documentary, but left the spoken films.[758].
In the following years, cinema focused on foreign productions and companies such as Pathé Frères and Gaumont "Gaumont (film company)") opened branches in Barcelona, as the new art was beginning to be a successful business. In 1906, the first Catalan production companies, Films Barcelona and Hispano Films, were founded, and the number of local productions grew progressively. In 1908, Ricardo de Baños filmed his famous Barcelona en tram, in which he traveled around the city on a tram. Documentaries continued to predominate, although fiction grew, which in turn diversified into genres, often based on plays or novels. Despite everything, cinema remained far from modernism, a movement from which it even received strong criticism, such as those received by Santiago Rusiñol in some articles in L'Esquella de la Torratxa.[759].
The marriage between cinema and modernism finally occurred with the solo stage of Adrián Gual, once he was separated from the Sala Mercè. After the creation in France of Film d'art, a genre that imitated theater by recreating classic works of drama, in 1913 Gual founded the production company Barcinografia S.A. After assembling a solvent team of artists and professionals, Gual directed eight films between 1914 and 1915. The first were El Alcalde de Zalamea "The Mayor of Zalamea (1914 film)") (with text by Calderón de la Barca), Misteri de Dolor (text by Gual himself), Fridolin (by Schiller), La Gitanilla (by Cervantes) and The White Hairs (by Tolstoy). Unfortunately, only one survives, Misteri de Dolor, a rural drama that moves somewhat away from the theatricality of Film d'art and pioneers the plasticity of the new medium, through shots and framing that escape the general shot of theatrical adaptations, as well as lighting that emphasizes the narrative thread and a whole series of resources such as reverse shots, panoramic shots and scale jumps. Unfortunately, Gual's initiative did not work out financially and, at the request of the production company's investors, he went on to make more commercial films, more to the public's taste: Linito wants to be a bullfighter, The Calvary of a Hero and A Love Drama. Despite everything, he did not recover and, in 1915, he resigned.[760].
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Catalan Modernism.
• - Modernism Route.
References
[1] ↑ Término introducido por Francesc Fontbona en La crisis del modernismo artístico (1975).[2] No confundir con el arte posmoderno —o arte propio de la posmodernidad— de los siglos xx y xxi.[3].
[2] ↑ El historiador Josep Fontana (La formació d'una identitat, 2014) opina en cambio que la revitalización del catalán no provino de la Renaixença ni los Juegos Florales, cuyos escritores eran en su mayoría castellanohablantes y miembros de la burguesía que solo hablaban catalán con el servicio doméstico y que escribían en catalán solamente como ejercicio retórico, un catalán además de tipo arcaizante, que no era el hablado en su tiempo por la gente corriente. En cambio, señala como agentes popularizadores del catalán a dramaturgos autores de obras populares como Serafí Pitarra, los coros de Anselmo Clavé o revistas como Un tros de paper, Lo Noy de la mare o La Campana de Gracia.[22].
[3] ↑ El modernismo recibió numerosos otros nombres, casi todos ellos relacionados con su gusto por la curva: paling stijl (estilo anguila), style nouille (estilo tenia), wellenstil (estilo ondulante), gereizter Regenwurm (estilo lombriz erguida), style coup de fouet (estilo golpe de látigo), style fumée de cigarette (estilo humo de cigarro) o stile floreale (estilo floral).[29].
[4] ↑ En tal sentido, Josep Francesc Ràfols comentó en una ocasión que «son tan distintas las personalidades que en esta corriente desembocan que nada o casi nada de aglutinante podemos descubrir a menudo entre ellas; por lo cual, más que tratar del modernismo como supuesta escuela o tendencia, departiremos de los modernistas, fracciones de una abigarrada suma que al matemático más sagaz le fuera difícil poderlas reducir a común denominador, ya que a veces incluso unas con otras se contradicen».[73] Igualmente, Pedro Navascués señala que «si hubiera que justificar la coherencia de este modernisme catalán diría que este no reside tanto en el arte y la arquitectura como en el ambiente cultural que baña Barcelona y respiran sus gentes, especialmente una burguesía adinerada, vinculada al comercio y la industria, que se reconoce en el modernismo como sus padres y abuelos lo hicieron en el mejor eclecticismo».[73].
[5] ↑ Por su artículo En busca de una arquitectura nacional, publicado en 1879 en la revista La Renaixensa.[135].
[6] ↑ El nombre de Cau Ferrat («nido herrado») proviene de la colección de hierros que tenía Rusiñol en su taller, que traspasó a su nueva casa en Sitges, construida en 1893 por el arquitecto Francesc Rogent en la finca Can Falau, ampliada al año siguiente con otra contigua, Can Sensa. Actualmente acoge el Museo Cau Ferrat.[379].
[7] ↑ No confundir con Sebastià Junyent.
[8] ↑ Hay que descontar el curso académico 1897-1898, en que estudió en la Academia de San Fernando de Madrid; por otro lado, entre 1898 y 1898 pasó una templorada en Horta de San Juan (Tarragona), donde vivía su amigo el pintor Manuel Pallarès.[453].
[9] ↑ Especialmente de amigos suyos, como Joan Vidal i Ventosa, Carlos Casagemas, Josep Cardona, Ricardo Opisso, Josep Maria Folch i Torres, Jaime Sabartés, Eveli Torent, Manuel Pallarès y los hermanos Jacinto y Ramón Reventós, que expuso en febrero de 1900 en Els Quatre Gats.
[10] ↑ Fontbona et al., 2003, p. 11.
[11] ↑ a b Fontbona et al., 2003, p. 46.
[12] ↑ El llibre d'or de l'art català, pp. 171-172.
[13] ↑ a b c Bassegoda i Nonell, Infiesta y Marco, 1981, p. 148.
[198] ↑ Ferrer y Gómez Serrano, 2002, pp. 137-139.
[199] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 58.
[200] ↑ Fontbona et al., 2002, p. 136.
[201] ↑ Monner i Faura, Jordi (1992). BCN 92. Guía de La Vanguardia. 7: De la plaza Catalunya a la plaza Lesseps. Eixample. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. p. 9.
[202] ↑ Midant, 2004, pp. 749-750.
[203] ↑ Huertas, Capilla y Maspoch, 2005, p. 74.
[204] ↑ Fontbona y Miralles, 2001, pp. 152-153.
[205] ↑ Miralles, 2008, p. 73.
[206] ↑ Lacuesta y González, 1997, p. 49.
[207] ↑ Huertas, Capilla y Maspoch, 2005, pp. 202-205.
[208] ↑ Lacuesta y González, 1997, p. 135.
[209] ↑ Sagnier. Arquitecte, Barcelona 1858-1931, p. 15.
[210] ↑ Barjau, 1992, p. 12.
[211] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, pp. 192-193.
[212] ↑ Monner i Faura, Jordi (1992). BCN 92. Guía de La Vanguardia. 7: De la plaza Catalunya a la plaza Lesseps. Eixample. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. p. 20.
[220] ↑ Bassegoda i Nonell, Infiesta y Marco, 1981, p. 132.
[221] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 208.
[222] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 205.
[223] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 211.
[224] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 95.
[225] ↑ Lacuesta y González, 1997, p. 29.
[226] ↑ Huertas, Capilla y Maspoch, 2005, pp. 190-194.
[227] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, pp. 198-199.
[228] ↑ Barral i Altet et al., Jornet, p. 140.
[229] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 164.
[230] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 197.
[231] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 90.
[232] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 85-86.
[233] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 91.
[234] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 117.
[235] ↑ a b Fontbona et al., 2002, p. 132.
[236] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 34.
[237] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 315-317.
[238] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 320-322.
[239] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, p. 335.
[240] ↑ Huertas, Capilla y Maspoch, 2005, p. 211.
[241] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 374-375.
[242] ↑ Maspoch, 2008, p. 175.
[243] ↑ a b Maspoch, 2008, p. 136.
[244] ↑ Lacuesta y González Toran, 2006, pp. 120-121.
[245] ↑ Monner i Faura, Jordi (1992). BCN 92. Guía de La Vanguardia. 3: De la Rotonda al Observatori fabra. Tibidabo / Del Auditori a la Plaça de la Palmera. Meridiana. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. p. 1.
[258] ↑ Monner i Faura, Jordi (1992). BCN 92. Guía de La Vanguardia. 7: De la plaza Catalunya a la plaza Lesseps. Eixample. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. p. 29.
Other works of his are: the Editorial Montaner y Simón (current Antoni Tàpies Foundation, 1881-1886), the restaurant of the Universal Exhibition of 1888 (known as Castillo de los Tres Dragones and current Museum of Zoology), the ephemeral Hotel Internacional for the same exhibition, the Thomas house (1895-1898), the Lamadrid house (1902), the Hotel España (1903) and the house Fuster (1908-1911).[143] In Reus—considered the second modernist capital after Barcelona—[144] he built the Navàs house (1901), a mansion of Venetian inspiration, with excellent furniture by Gaspar Homar, as well as the Rull houses "Casa Rull (Reus)") (1900) and Gasull (1911), adjacent on San Juan street; Likewise, he was the author of the pavilions of the Pedro Mata Institute (1899-1919), on the outskirts of the city.[144] Another work of his in Tarragona was the Espluga de Francolí Cooperative Winery (1913-1914).[145] He also left several works in Canet de Mar, where his maternal family came from, such as the Catalan Athenaeum. (1885-1887), the Roura house (1889-1892), the renovation of the Santa Florentina castle (1898-1909) and the Domènech house (1908-1910, current Domènech i Montaner Museum).[143] In Olot he was the author of the Solà-Morales house (1913-1916).[146].
His son, Pere Domènech i Roura, initially combined modernism with an incipient noucentisme, as denoted in the Marco house in Reus (1926). He collaborated in some of his father's works, such as the Espluga de Francolí Cooperative Winery, the San Pablo Hospital and the Pedro Mata Institute.[147].
At the turn of the century he finally entered into his naturalist stage, in which he perfected his personal style, drawing inspiration from the organic forms of nature and putting into practice a whole series of new structural solutions originating from Gaudí's profound analyzes of regulated geometry. Starting from a certain baroque style, his works acquired great structural richness, with shapes and volumes devoid of rationalist rigidity or any classical premise.[156] Among the works of this period are: the Calvet house (1898-1899), the Miralles portal (1900-1902), the Park Güell (1900-1914), the restoration of the Cathedral of Mallorca (1903-1914), the Batlló house (1904-1906), the Catllaràs chalet (1905) and the Can Artigas gardens in La Pobla de Lillet (1905-1907), the Milà house (1906-1910) and the crypt of the Colonia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló (1908-1918). Park Güell was a failed urbanization project for Eusebio Güell, of which only two houses were built, but the architect built in the entrance area a set of gate pavilions and a staircase that leads to a hypostyle hall and a plaza in the shape of a Greek theater of great creative ingenuity. bone-shaped columns and plant representations; The façade is topped by a vault formed by catenary arches covered with glazed ceramic in the shape of a dragon.[158] The Milà house or "la Pedrera" has a façade made of limestone, except for the upper part covered with white tiles; On the roof, the staircase exits stand out, topped with the four-armed Gaudinian cross, as well as the chimneys, covered in ceramic with shapes that suggest soldiers' helmets.[159].
In the last years of his career, dedicated almost exclusively to the Sagrada Familia, Gaudí reached the culmination of his naturalistic style: after the construction of the crypt and the apse, still in neo-Gothic style, he conceived the rest of the temple in an organic style, imitating the shapes of nature, where regulated geometric shapes abound. The temple has a Latin cross plan, with five central naves and a transept with three naves, with an apse with seven chapels and three facades dedicated to the Birth, Passion and Glory of Jesus, as well as eighteen towers. The interior resembles a forest, with a set of inclined arborescent columns, in a helical shape, creating a structure that is both simple and resistant.[160].
Seven of Gaudí's works "Works of Antoni Gaudí (World Heritage)") have been declared by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites: in 1984 Park Güell, Palau Güell and Casa Milà;[161] and, in 2005, the Nativity façade, the crypt and apse of the Sagrada Familia, Casa Vicens, Casa Batlló and crypt of Colonia Güell.[162].
Without creating a school per se, Gaudí left several disciples who followed in his footsteps to a greater or lesser extent. First of all, we must mention Francisco Berenguer, who was his right-hand man until his premature death. He was a master builder who did not obtain the title of architect, so his projects were signed by other architects, including Miquel Pascual, municipal architect of Gracia, to whom he was also assistant, which is why numerous of his works are found in Gracia. He was the author, among other works, of the Libertad market (1888-1893), the Royal Sanctuary of San José de la Montaña (1895-1902), the Burés house (1900-1905), the Moral Center of Gracia (1904), the Gracia Town Hall (1905), the Gaudí House-Museum in Park Güell (1905), the Cama house (1905) and the Rubinat (1909).[163].
Another collaborator was Juan Rubió, a prolific architect who initially practiced a Gothic eclecticism, with intensive use of the brick "Surveyor (construction)") and meticulousness in the design,[164] but, after being appointed architect of the Barcelona Provincial Council, he moved on to a baroque classicism, although always with Gaudinian survival.[165] Among his works in Barcelona, the following stand out: the Golferichs house. (1900-1901), the Alemany house (1900-1901), the Roviralta or Frare Blanc house (1903-1913), the Fornells house (1903), the Pomar house (1904-1906), the Casacoberta house (1907), the Manuel Dolcet house (1907), the Rialp house (1908) and the Roig house (1915-1918).[166] In Reus, his hometown, he was the author of the Serra Laboratories (1911-1912) and the Serra o Cuadrada house (1924-1926),[144] as well as the Anti-tuberculosis Dispensary (1926).[167] He also participated in the creation of the Colonia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló, where he built the Cooperative (with Francisco Berenguer, 1900) and various private houses, such as Ca l'Ordal (1894) and Ca l'Espinal (1900).[166][168] Other works outside the Catalan capital were: the Delgado house in Gélida (1910),[169] the church of San Miguel de la Roqueta (1912)[170] and the house of Dr. Bonada in Ripoll (1912-1914),[171] the Hospital of Campdevánol (1917), the Vilella house in Sitges (1919),[170] the renovation of the chapel and the farmhouse of Sant Pere de Clarà in Argentona (1920), the Fontana house in Rupit (1922),[171] the church of Raimat (1916-1918) and the Raventós Wineries in the same town (1924-1925),[170] the Trinxet house (1923-1925)[172] and the Puigdomènech house in San Felíu de Codinas (1912),[173] the Santo Cristo asylum in Igualada (1931-1946)[170] and the Carmen church in Manresa (1940-1952).[171].
Perhaps the most gifted was Josep Maria Jujol, who worked with Gaudí between 1907 and 1914, a time in which he already showed a strong personality and creative genius. He developed a heterodox style, in which he mixed Catholic mysticism with an almost surrealist sense of decoration, with a taste for calligraphy, organic images - close to the work of Joan Miró - and the mystification of techniques and materials, sometimes close to collage. Lloyd Wright.[175] Other works of his in Barcelona are the Sansalvador estate (1909-1910), the Queralt house (1916-1917) and the Manyach workshops (currently the Josep Maria Jujol School, 1916-1922). He carried out various works in San Juan Despí, where he was municipal architect between 1926 and 1949, among which the Torre de la Creu (1913), the Masía de Can Negre (1915-1930) and the Serra-Xaus house (1921-1927) stand out.[176] In Tarragona he designed the Metropol Theater (1908) and the Ximenis house (1914), while who, within his province, built the Bofarull house in Els Pallaresos (1914), the church of the Sacred Heart "Iglesia del Sagrado Corazón (Vistabella)") in Vistabella "Vistabella (Tarragona)") (1918-1923) and the sanctuary of the Virgin of Montserrat in Montferri (1926), both works of clear Gaudinian reminiscence in the use of arches parabolic.[177] In the postwar period he moved to an anti-avant-garde academicism of Franciscan inspiration, very far removed from his initial works.[178].
Domingo Sugrañes was Berenguer's successor as Gaudí's right-hand man; On the other hand, after the death of his teacher, he was the new director of the works of the Sagrada Familia, being in charge of finishing the Nativity façade.[179] In 1915-1916 he collaborated with Ignasi Mas i Morell on the Monumental bullring in Barcelona, an extension of the original work of Manuel Raspall, to which they added the neo-Mudejar style façade.[180] In Barcelona he built various residential buildings, among which the Miralles house (1901) and the Sivatte house (1914) stand out.[181] He was also the author of the Casino Unión Cardonense in Cardona (1916)[182] and the Pellicer house (1919) and the Mas Llevat (1924-1925) in Reus.[183] From the 1920s onwards he became closer to the noucentismo.[184].
Cèsar Martinell was one of the young students who frequented Gaudí's workshop, whose teachings he applied in his work, especially in a group of cooperative wineries built between 1918 and 1922, which were declared in 2002 Cultural Asset of National Interest: Cornudella de Montsant and Falset in the region of El Priorato "El Priorato (Tarragona)"); Nulles in the Alto Campo region; Barbará and Rocafort de Queralt in the Cuenca de Barberá region; Gandesa and Pinell de Bray in the Highlands; and San Guim de Freixanet and Cervera in the region of La Segarra.[185] Known as the "cathedrals of wine", these wineries clearly reflect the Gaudinian influence in the use of parabolic arches and the Catalan vault.[186] He was also the author of the Federación Obrera de Molins de Rey (1918),[187] the Can Vivas house in Valls, the house of the Parishioner in Ulldecona (1919-1921) and the house of Dr. Domingo in Alcover.[188].
Another of these young students was Joan Bergós, author of some works of Gaudinian influence in his youth, although he later moved into a Noucentisme with a Brunelleschian tendency. Among these works are: the altar of the Sacrament of the church of San Lorenzo "Iglesia de San Lorenzo (Lérida)") in Lérida (1919); the altar-baldachin of the New Cathedral of Lérida (1924-1925, destroyed in 1936) and the house of the Baron of Alpicat in the same city (1921); and the hermitage of San Antonio in Seo de Urgel (1924).[189].
José Canaleta evolved from modernism to noucentisme. He carried out various projects in Barcelona, Cornellá de Llobregat and Castelldefels. In Vic he built various buildings, such as the Fortuny house (1910) and the Vilaró house (1910). He was the author of the Teatro de la Cooperativa in Roda de Ter (1915).[190].
Jaume Bayó was the author of the Baurier house in Barcelona (1910) and the Grau house in Moncada and Reixach (1903), where he combined the Gaudinian and Viennese influences.[191].
[209].
Another trend was that of certain architects who, without being direct disciples of Gaudí, showed his influence, such as Bernardí Martorell, Salvador Valeri and Julio María Fossas. Martorell, nephew of Joan Martorell, one of Gaudí's teachers, was the author of the Laplana house (1907), the monastery of Santa María de Valldonzella (1910) and the convent of the Oblate Sisters of the Holy Redeemer (1919-1929), in Barcelona, as well as the Olius cemetery,[210] the Piarists church of Sabadell (1924) and the College Teresiano de Tarragona (1926).[211] Valeri evidenced the Gaudinian influence especially in the use of the Catalan vault and the parabolic arch, as seen in the Sant Jordi tower (1908) and the Comalat house (1909-1911) in Barcelona.[212] He was the municipal architect of El Papiol, where he built some reminiscent summer houses. Gaudíesque, such as Can Bou (1914).[213] In San Vicente dels Horts he was the author of the Trian house (1910-1911) and the Prats factory (1915).[214] Fossas showed the influence of Gaudí and Juan Rubió, as denoted in the Josefa Villanueva houses (1904-1909) and the Mariano Pau house (1907) of Barcelona. He was architect of the Ornament Section and the Technical Section of Property Development of Barcelona City Council, positions from which he promoted various housing complexes.[215].
Another trend was that of secessionist influence, where it is worth mentioning Alexandre Soler, Josep Maria Pericas, Eduard Ferrés and Arnau Calvet. Soler was a disciple of Domènech i Montaner, while he received the influence of Otto Wagner, as can be seen in the Heribert Pons house in Barcelona (1907-1909).[216] In Manresa, where he was a municipal architect, he was the author of the Lluís de Peguera Institute (1907-1927), the Harinera Albareda (1909) and the Casal Regionalista (1918).[217] He was also the author of the church of the Sagrada Familia de la Bauma in Castellbell and Vilar (1905-1908) and, with Francesc Guàrdia i Vial, he created the Central Market of Valencia (1910).[218] Pericas brought together the secessionist influence with the Gaudinian influence, as well as German expressionism and the Amsterdam school, as evidenced in the Carmen church in Barcelona (1910-1930).[219] He was also the author of the Anita Colomer house in Vic (1906), the Mental Clinic of Santa Coloma de Gramanet (1906, with Rafael Masó)[220] and the chapel of the Inmaculada in the Monastery of Montserrat.[221] Ferrés showed the influence of Viennese secessionism and Art Nouveau of Victor Horta, interpreted in a personal way, as seen in the Almacenes Damians in Barcelona (1917) or the Clot del Moro chalet in Castellar de Nuch (1904).[222] He was the municipal architect of Vilassar de Mar, where he built the Sitges Bassa house (1899), Ca l'Aldrufeu (current Navy Museum, 1902), the access portal to the municipal cemetery (1902-1908), the reform of the town hall (1903), Can Matamala (1916) and the Ferrés house (1916-1920).[223] He held the same position in Mataró, where he built the La Alianza Mataronense Clinic (1916-1926), the El Palau garden-colony (1924) and the Grupo Goya cheap houses (1926);[224] and, likewise, in Canet de Mar, where he created the Villa Flora (1910).[225] Calvet was the author of the Cendra i Caralt Warehouses, later the Hydroelectric Plant of Catalonia (1905); the Vallvidrera Funicular complex (lower and upper station, 1905-1906, with Bonaventura Conill); the Francesc Lalanne houses (1907-1910); and the Sarriá Market (1911-1913, with Marceliano Coquillat), all in Barcelona.[226].
Other modernist architects of interest are:
Eduard Maria Balcells gave special importance to glassmaking, a trade in which he had a workshop and which he put into practice in the Tosquella house (1906).[227] He was also the author of the Lluch house (1906), the Barnils house (1908), the Mónaco house (1910) and the Generalife house (1913) in San Cugat del Vallés[228] and the tower Montserrat in Cardedeu. He was municipal architect of Sardañola del Vallés, where he left several works: the Diviu house (1905), the Rectory of the church of San Martín "Iglesia de San Martín (Sardañola del Vallés)") (1908) and the Evarist López house (1912) and the Public Schools (1912-1915) and the town hall (1920).[229] In Sabadell he was an author. of the Sallarés Deu Factory (1914) and the Genís i Pont Office (1915).[230].
Manuel Raspall placed special emphasis on construction with brick, iron and mosaic, as well as designing stained glass windows. A disciple of Domènech i Montaner and Puig i Cadafalch, he left several works in the Vallès Oriental, where he was municipal architect of the towns of Cardedeu, Ametlla del Vallés, La Garriga, Granollers, Caldas de Montbuy and Montmeló: Millet house (1908) in Ametlla; Barbey house (1910), La Bombonera (1910), Iris chalet (1911) and Barraquer house (1912-1913) in La Garriga; Cloelia farmhouse (1904), Golferichs-Rovellat house (1908), Viader house (1917-1922) and municipal cemetery in Cardedeu;[231] Clapés house (1907-1913), Ganduxer house (1912), Can Biel (1923), Costa house (1927) in Granollers.[232] In Barcelona he was the author of the villa Hèlius (1906-1909), the Teixidor house (1911) and the renovation of El Molino "El Molino (cabaré)") (1913), as well as the Monumental bullring (1913, renovated in 1916 by Ignasi Mas and Domingo Sugrañes).[233].
For his part, Ignasi Mas began in a modernism in which the play of volumes of the facades stood out, as in the Auriga houses of San Juan Despí (1910-1911). After a few years abroad, in 1915 he was in charge of the renovation of the Monumental bullring - with Domingo Sugrañes - in a neo-Mudejar style. Gorina (1918) and, in Sitges, the Bartomeu Carbonell or del Reloj house (1913-1915).[234].
Adolfo Ruiz Casamitjana was the author of the Andreu tower or "the Rotonda" (1906-1918) in Barcelona, a house formed by two rectangular bodies articulated in the shape of an L, joined in their central part by a cylindrical body topped by a tower with a dome covered in ceramic.[236] He also built several residential buildings along the lines of Enric Sagnier: Llorenç Armengol house (1900), house Camprubí (1900-1901), Rafel house (1911).[237].
Josep Domènech i Mansana, son of Doménech Estapá, held the position of architect of the Ministry of Public Instruction since 1917, for which he built numerous schools in various Catalan towns.[238] He was also the municipal architect of Santa María de Palautordera, where he built the Town Hall and the Municipal Schools (1929),[239] as well as of San Celoni, where he built the Town Hall (1926), the Municipal Slaughterhouse (1927) and the Térmica (1925-1930);[240] and Esparraguera, where he built the municipal market (1911) and the Matadero (1916).[241].
Andreu Audet stood out for his decorative art, full of figurative reliefs and openwork lattices, as seen in works such as the Baldomer Rovira house (1899), the Hotel Colón (1902, disappeared), the Josep Sabadell house (1904) and the Editorial Seguí (1912).[242] He also built various commercial buildings and performance halls, among which the Teatro Apolo "Teatro" stands out. Apolo (Barcelona)"),[243] as well as the Casino de la Rabassada in San Cugat del Vallés (1899).[244].
Jeroni Granell developed his own personality, in a line closer to Art Nouveau, with special emphasis on the use of stained glass and sgraffito, decorative purification and a flat treatment of the facades: Granell house (1902-1904), buildings on Mallorca 219, Roger de Lauria 84, Padua 75 and Gerona 122, all between 1900 and 1903.[245][246].
To a lesser extent, it is worth mentioning architects such as: Camilo Oliveras, one of the pioneers of modernism, especially for the use of exposed brick and polychrome ceramics, a technique that he developed in the Provincial Maternity and Foundling House of Barcelona (1883-1924), with General Guitart.[247] Guitart himself was the author of the Santa Perpetua de Moguda Town Hall (1892), the Armstrong Factory in Palafrugell (1900-1904) and several buildings in San Felíu de Guixols: La Constancia casino (1888-1898), Sweis asylum (1904), El Guixolense casino (1909) and the Patxot house,[204] as well as the Governor's Tower in Alella (1916).[248] Jaume Torres i Grau was the author of the Ramos houses (1906-1908) in the Plaza de Lesseps in Barcelona, made up of three independent buildings, but united by a single façade, which stands out for its sgraffito.[249] Ferran Romeu made several houses in a style close to French Art Nouveau, in Barcelona (Carbonell house, 1897-1900; Conrad Roure house, 1901-1902; Rabaseda house, 1912) and San Cugat del Vallès (Armet House, 1898). 1916-1928) (1896-1900) and the Gener house in Villanueva y Geltrú (1902).[253] Gabriel Borrell was municipal architect of Sant Feliu de Llobregat, where he built several residential and residential buildings, among which the Cahué Raspall house (1916) stands out; in Barcelona he was the author of the Vallet house (1908), as well as the chapel of the Colegio de las Teresianas, the work of Gaudí (1908).[254] Miquel Madorell began in a classicist eclecticism, but at the end of the century he entered modernism, with a certain taste for floral and vegetal ornamentation and the use of wrought iron applications, as denoted in the Santurce house (1902-1905); He was also the author of the Ateneo Agrícola in San Sadurní de Noya (1908-1909) and the Círculo Mallorquín in Palma de Mallorca (1913).[255] Josep Amargós was the author of the Greenhouse in the Ciudadela Park (1883-1887), built for the Universal Exhibition. Later he built the Dos Rius water tower in Tibidabo (1902-1905) and the complex of the General Water Society of Barcelona in Cornellá de Llobregat (1905, now the Agbar Water Museum). floral type. Among his works, the following stand out: the Francesc Ferreres house (1898), the Iglesias house (1899), the Leandre Bou house (1906-1907), the Maldonado house "Casa Maldonado (Barcelona)") (1913-1914) and the Millàs house (1915), in Barcelona.[257] Francesc Guàrdia i Vial was Domènech i's son-in-law. Montaner, with whom he collaborated at the Palace of Catalan Music. He was the author of the Teatro Principal de Terrasa (1909, with Enric Catà) and the Mercado Central de Valencia (1910) with Alexandre Soler.[258] Josep Graner was a master builder, author of several houses in Barcelona (Sala Sagristà house, 1900; Sabata house, 1900; Emili Ferrusola house, 1904-1905; Forn house, 1905; houses Pascual Coll, 1906-1908; Fajol house, 1912) and several buildings and summer villas in Moncada and Reixach (Milans tower, 1889; Panisello Factory, 1911-1912; Town Hall, 1918; Valentí tower, 1927). His most emblematic work is the Fajol house, which stands out for its ceramic crown in the shape of a butterfly.[259] Pau Salvat was a member of the Salvat Publishing family, for which he built its headquarters in 1912-1916. His work stands out for its seal of quality, as in the Oller house (1903), where he applied a wide modernist repertoire, both in ceramics and wrought iron, marble and sgraffito, as well as capitals of zoomorphic and vegetal figures. In Igualada he was the author of the Ratés house (1905-1909).[260] Bonaventura Conill was the author of the Matas i Ramis house (1903) and the Vallvidrera Funicular complex (1905, with Arnau Calvet).[261] Marceliano Coquillat was the municipal architect of San Justo Desvern, where he renovated the Can Ginestar farmhouse (1904) and built the Pruna house. (1909). In Barcelona he was the author of the Villa Conchita (1912) and the Josefina Bonet house (1915), as well as the Sarriá Market (1911-1913), with Arnau Calvet.[262].
Apart from those mentioned, it is worth remembering at least briefly architects such as: Antoni Rovira i Rabassa (Codina house, 1892; Ramon Casas house, 1898-1899);[263] Manuel Comas i Thos (Jaume Moysi house, 1893-1895; Viuda Marfà house, 1901-1905); and Joaquim Bassegoda (Berenguer house, 1907; Rocamora houses, 1914-1918);[265] Modest Feu (Jaume Estrada house, 1906; Domènec Vila house, 1918);[266] Joan Alsina (Oller house, 1901; Pince restaurant, 1906; Franciscan church, 1906, in Barcelona; Trinxet factory, in Hospitalet de Llobregat, 1907; Valls-Brufau house, 1900, and Sabaté house, 1903, in Igualada); from Les Franqueses del Vallès, 1912);[242] José Pérez Terraza (Francesc Farreras house, 1899; Ignacio Portabella tower, 1905);[267] Telm Fernández i Janot (Felip houses, 1901 and 1905-1913);[268] Salvador Soteras (Ibarz Bernat house, 1901-1904) Sabadell) 1915-1918) and Asilo del Redós de San José and San Pedro in San Pedro de Ribas, 1901;[279] Miramar chalet in Villanueva y Geltrú, 1913).[280].
Lastly, it is necessary to point out in this period the interest given to commercial establishments, in which, along with the architectural structure, applied arts, interior design and decoration played an essential role. A good example of this is: the Múrria grocery store (1898); the Bar Torino, decorated by Antoni Gaudí, Pedro Falqués and Josep Puig i Cadafalch in 1902; the Antigua Casa Figueras pasta factory, decorated in 1902 by the painter and set designer Antoni Ros i Güell; the Bolós pharmacy, decorated in 1902 by Antoni de Falguera; the Grill Room restaurant, by the decorator Ricard de Capmany (1902); the Sarret oven (1906); the Casa Teixidor fine arts store, by Manuel Raspall (1909); the Reñé confectionery, decorated by Enric Llardent in 1910; the Puigoriol pharmacy, by Marià Pau") (1913-1914); and the El Indio lingerie, by the decorators Vilaró and Valls (1922).[281].
It is also worth noting the importance given to funerary architecture, either in the construction or renovation of cemeteries or in the construction of pantheons "Pantheon (architecture)") and hypogeums, which were another of the hallmarks of the bourgeoisie of the time, generally in conjunction with sculptures by the best architects of the time, such as Josep Llimona, Eusebi Arnau or Enric Clarasó. Some exponents would be: the Lloret de Mar cemetery, by Joaquim Artau") (1896-1901); the Vilassar de Mar cemetery, by Eduard Ferrés (1908); the Castellar del Vallés cemetery, by Antoni de Falguera (1911-1916); or the Olíus cemetery, by Bernardí Martorell (1916).[282].
• - Trias House (1903-1906), by Juli Batllevell, Barcelona.
• - Josefa Villanueva Houses (1904-1909), by Julio María Fossas, Barcelona.
• - Ignacio Portabella Tower (1905), by José Pérez Terraza, Barcelona.
• - Pérez Samanillo House, current Equestrian Circle (1910-1911), by Joan Josep Hervàs, Barcelona.
• - Rocamora Houses (1914-1918), by Bonaventura and Joaquim Bassegoda, Barcelona.
• - Barcelona Municipal Conservatory of Music (1916-1928), by Antoni de Falguera, Barcelona.
• - Sayrach House (1918), by Manuel Sayrach, Barcelona.
The Maresme has as its main point of reference its capital, Mataró, where, apart from the presence of Puig i Cadafalch or Antoni Gaudí - author of the Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense (1898-1882) -, it is worth mentioning Emili Cabanyes i Rabassa, who was municipal architect of Mataró from 1875 to 1892, a position from which he projected an expansion plan and was the author of the El Rengle Market (1891), which was completed by Puig i Cadafalch, as well as the chapel of the Sacrament of the basilica of Santa María "Basilica de Santa María (Mataró)"), in neo-Byzantine style (1892).[296] It is also worth mentioning Melchor de Palau y Simón, author of the Municipal Matadero (1906-1915).[297] In Tiana "Tiana (Barcelona)") we find the work of Ramon Maria Riudor, which evolved from neo-Gothic to a modernism of cheerful forms and decoration,[298] as denoted in the Casino (1911) and the houses Artusa (1906), Can Robert (1903-1918) and Can Fatjó (1911-1914).[299] El Masnou presents numerous summer villas, such as the Castellet de Ca l'Aymà, by Roc Cot i Cot (1907); the Eulàlia Matas house, by Domènec Boada Piera (1900-1901); and the Millet Bertran house, by Enric Fatjó Torras (1902).[300].
Another center of modernism is Vallés, divided into two regions: Vallés Occidental and Vallés Oriental. In the first there are two important cities that share the capital of the region: Terrasa and Sabadell. In Terrassa, modernism was widely disseminated, thanks to the exhibition at the Palace of Industries (current Tarrasa School of Engineering) in 1904. Tarrassa modernism stands out for its austere exteriors and richly ornamented interiors, especially in terms of carpentry, locksmithing, ceramic wainscoting and leaded stained glass windows. In this city, modernism lasted until the 1930s, later than in other places.[301] Among the architects who left work in the city, Lluís Muncunill stands out, who was a municipal architect, where he displayed a personal work that stands out for his extensive knowledge of construction techniques, both traditional and modern.[302] He was the author of the Town Hall of Tarrasa (1900-1902), the Baltasar Gorina house. (1902), the Hotel Pompidor (1903), the Farnés Warehouses (1904-1905), the Vapor Aymerich, Amat y Jover (1907, current Museum of Science and Technology of Catalonia) and the Masía Freixa (1907-1910). parabolic arches.[304] Josep Maria Coll i Bacardí had a short career due to his premature death, in which he showed a clear influence of Viennese architecture: Baumann House (1913), Torrella School Group (1916).[305] Antoni Pascual Carretero was municipal architect of Terrassa between 1904 and 1906, years in which he began work on the Independence Market.[306] Melcior Viñals was also the municipal architect of Terrassa, as well as Esparraguera and San Vicente dels Horts, in an essentially eclectic style, using modernism as another tool within his construction heritage. Among his works in the city of Egarense, the following stand out: the completion of the works on the Independence Market (1906-1908), the Alegre Sagrera House (1911) and the Almacenes Torras (1914).[307] In Sabadell, the work of Jeroni Martorell stood out, an architect of Gaudinian influence,[308] author of the Sabadell Savings Bank. (1904-1915) and the Old Industrial School of Arts and Crafts (1907-1910).[303] Josep Renom was the city's municipal architect, author of some modernist works before ascribing to Noucentisme, such as the Arimon house (1911).[309] One of the symbols of the city is the Water Tower, by Lluís Homs.[310].
In the Vallés Oriental we focus on its capital, Granollers, where Manuel Raspall worked as a municipal architect, as seen previously. He held the same position in Cardedeu, La Garriga and Ametlla del Vallés, forming the modernist core of this region. Previously, Simó Cordomí was the municipal architect of Granollers, who was the author of the Town Hall (1902-1904), in the neo-Gothic style. He was succeeded by Jeroni Martorell, author of the Blanxart house (1904). Another relevant work was the Granollers Hospital-Asylum, by Josep Maria Miró i Guibernau.[311].
Further inland are the regions of Alto Panadés, Noya "Noya (Barcelona)"), Bages, Osona and Bergadá. In the first, its main center was Villafranca del Panadés, where Santiago Güell was municipal architect, with works characterized by undulating shapes and floral decoration, among which the Magí Figueres Stores (1904), the Maria Claramunt house (1905), the Miró house (1905), the Artur Inglada house (1905), the Guasch house (1905-1909), the Ramona Quer house stand out. (1906), the Torres Casals house (1909), the Elies Valero house (1910) and the Asilo Inglada Via (1914).[312][313] Antoni Pons was also a municipal architect, author of works such as the Almacenes Jové (1921), the Cañas i Mañé house (1911) and the Rigual Artigas house (1912). Eugeni Campllonch, author of the Electra Vilafranquesa (1901), the façade of the Town Hall (1909) and the Jané Alegret house (1909) had the same position.[314] In the region of Noya there are modernist examples in its capital, Igualada, where Isidre Gili was municipal architect, author of the Matadero (1902-1905), the Serra house (1904), the Franquesa house (1905) and Cal Ratés (1908). Josep Pausas i Coll, author of the Ateneo Igualadino Schools (1916-1917) and the Pelfort Tannery (1917), was also a municipal architect. The pole of attraction for modernist architecture was Manresa, an important industrial city that grew significantly in the 20th century. Ignasi Oms i Ponsa was the municipal architect of the city, where he built works such as the Armengou House (1898), the Infantes School-Asilo (1901-1911), the Torrents House (1905), the Casino (1906), the Lluvià House (1908), the Torra House (1910) and the La Florinda Flour Mill. (1912-1913).[317] In Osona the majority of works took place in its capital, Vic, where Josep Ylla was municipal construction master, author of the Ramon Costa house (1906). Another master builder was Josep Anton Torner"), author of the Vilà house (1908). One of the most emblematic buildings is the Comella house, where the Casino is located, the work of Cayetano Buigas (1896).[318] In Bergadá, the main focus was the capital, Berga, where Roc Cot i Cot worked, who was its municipal architect between 1903 and 1908, where he built the church of the Sisters of the Desamparados, the Nuestra Señora de la Salud chapel, the Rodergas y Cía. factory, the Solanes house (1904), the Josep Viladomiu chalet and the Berguedà Casino (1908-1913). Emili Porta Galobart, author of the Town Hall (1924) and the Tomàs Pujol house (1925), also served as municipal architect.[319]
In Gerona capital, the presence of Rafael Masó stands out, who in his beginnings showed a clear Gaudinian influence, although he later evolved towards Noucentisme.[320] The secessionist influence is also evident in his work and, throughout his career, he tried to create in the city of Ter a work group similar to those of the German and Austrian werkstätte.[321] Masó designed—apart from his buildings— furniture, decorative objects and graphic arts works, which he included in his construction projects, as evidenced in one of his first works, the Masó Pharmacy (1908). The following year he carried out various works, such as the Batlle house and the Pension Fund in Gerona, the Mas El Soler in San Hilario Sacalm, the Mas La Riba in Vianya and the Coll house in Borrassá. Between 1910-1911 he built one of his most emblematic works, the Teixidor Flour Mill, which marked the end of the process of assimilation of Gaudinism, a style that little by little he simplified and drifted towards a more classicist line. In 1912 he founded the Athenea society for the promotion of art and culture, for which he built the building. In the following years his works already show a consolidated style: Masramon house in Olot (1913-1914), Ensesa house in Gerona (1913-1915), Cendra house in Anglés (1913-1915), Cases house in San Felíu de Guixols (1914-1916), Post Office building in Gerona (1915). His later work is already fully noucentista.[322] Other artists who left works in Gerona were: Isidre Bosch i Bataller (Furest house, 1904; Can Noguera, 1914), Joan Roca Pinet (Norat house, 1912-1913; Rigau house, 1914-1915; Dalmau house, 1917), Eugeni Campllonch (franquesa house, 1901), Josep Martí i Burch") (Bloc Auguet, 1912) and Enric Catà (Regàs Distilleries, 1907-1908; Gerunda Distilleries, 1911-1912).[323].
In the Alto Ampurdán region, modernism developed especially in the capital, Figueras, where Josep Azemar developed a modernism with medievalizing roots influenced by popular Catalan architecture. Municipal architect of the city, he was the author of several school and cooperative buildings, as well as the Moner house (1897), the municipal Slaughterhouse (1903-1904), the Cusí house (1904) and the Subirós house (1910). He was also the author of the Viladecans Town Hall (1892).[324] In Cadaqués we find the work of Salvador Sellés Baró"), author of the Can Seriñana house (1911).[325].
Alfred Paluzie worked in Olot, who was a municipal architect, author of the city's urbanization plan (1906),[326] as well as the Gaietà Vila house (1905), the Prat house (1907) and the Gassiot house (1911).[327] Josep Azemar was the author of the Pujador house (1911).[328].
Antoni Coll i Fort worked in the Ripollés area, author of the Buixó house in Ripoll (1902-1904), the Carles Puig house in Campdevánol (1903), the Climent Tarré house in San Juan de las Abadesas (1912-1915), the Vila house in Camprodón (1916) or the Pamias house in Ribas de Freser (1917).[305] Simó Cordomí was the author of the Can Roig house in Camprodón (1900-1901).[329] Jeroni Martorell was the author of the Ull de Ter chalet-refuge in Setcasas (1906-1909).[330].
Lérida highlighted the work of Francesc Morera, who was the city's municipal architect between 1907 and 1941. His works include: the Magí Llorens house (1905), the Bergós house (1908), the Xammar house (1908), the Matadero (1912, current Teatro del Escorxador), the Pla Market (1913), the Nadal house (1915) and the Hotel Pal·las (1915).[331][332] Francisco Lamolla, also active in Huesca, was the author of the Mestres house.[333].
In Balaguer, it is worth highlighting the work of Ignasi de Villalonga Casañés, who was the city's municipal architect. His most notable work is Can Comabella (1918-1921).[334].
In Tárrega is the Càrcer house, by Josep Coll Vilaclara (1909-1910).[335].
In Solsona it is worth highlighting the Reig Padullés house, by Emili Porta Galobart (1928)[336] and the Hotel Sant Roc, by Bernardí Martorell (1915-1929).[337].
In Cervera, it is worth highlighting the work of the master builder Manuel Minguell Rovira"), author of the Hermenegildo Colom house (1912), the Ca l'Albareda Almacenes (1915-1918) and the Rosendo Güell house (1918-1919).[338].
In the province of Tarragona we must highlight the work of Josep Maria Jujol, both in the capital and in the churches of Vistabella and Montferri, as well as the wineries of Cèsar Martinell, as has been seen. In Tarragona city, the architect with the most modernist work is Josep Maria Pujol i de Barberà, municipal architect between 1897 and 1939, author of the Rectorate of the Rovira i Virgili University (1898), the Ripoll (1910), Bofarull (1921) and Dr. Aleu (1927) houses, the Municipal Market (1911-1915), the Mas de Sorder (1913) and the Cooperativa Obrera Tarraconense (1917).[339] Ramón Salas Ricomá was the author of the railing of the Balcón del Mediterráneo (1889), the Chamber of Urban Property (1899) and his house on Rambla Nova (1907),[340] as well as the Public Schools of Falset (1909-1916) and the Miquel Granell Schools of Amposta (1911-1912).[341].
An important modernist center was Reus, Gaudí's hometown, where, paradoxically, he left no works. Apart from the works of Domènech i Montaner, Rubió and Sugrañes, already analyzed, the work of Pere Caselles stands out, who was municipal architect of Reus from 1891 to 1930, where he was the architect of a good number of works, among which the Punyed house (1892), the Homdedéu house (1893), the Munné house (1904), the Laguna house (1904), the Bank of Spain (1904), the Oenological Station (1910), the Sagarra house (1908), the Tomàs Jordi house (1909), the Grau house (1910) and the Prat de la Riba (1908-1917) and Pompeu Fabra (1926) school groups.[167].
Pablo Monguió, a disciple of Augusto Font Carreras, with whom he worked in Tarragona, worked in Tortosa. Between 1905 and 1908 he was municipal architect of the city, where he was the author of the Camós house (1904), the Pallarès chalet (1906), the Fontanet house (1906-1909), the Matheu house (1907) and the Matadero (1907-1908, current Tortosa Museum). Later he worked especially in Teruel.[342] Juan Abril Guañabens was also a municipal architect, author of the expansion of Tortosa (1886), the churches of Reparación (1899-1903) and Rosario (1910-1914) and the municipal cemetery (1900-1923).[324].
In Valls we must highlight the work of Josep Maria Vives Castellet, author of the Vives house (1916), the Agricultural Cooperative Winery (1919-1920) and the Mercadé house (1921).[343].
In Amposta, the Fàbregas house, by Ricard Giralt i Casadesús (1913-1914), stands out; and the Morales-Talarn house (1915-1916), by the master builder Joaquim Cabanes Suñer.[344].
By Lluís Domènech i Montaner, apart from the work already mentioned in Comillas, we must highlight outside Catalonia the Gran Hotel "Gran Hotel (Palma de Mallorca)") of Palma de Mallorca (1901-1903), in its day the most prominent luxury hotel in the entire state. It is a chamfered building, with a double façade that stands out for its rich sculptural ornamentation, with diaphanous basements resolved with carpanel arches and columns with angled shafts, while in the chamfer there is a hexagonal tribune topped by a pediment "Fronton (architecture)") with sculptures by Eusebi Arnau.[351] Another work of his outside the Principality was the Monte de Piedad Alfonso XIII and Caja de Ahorros de Santander (1905-1907), a more classical building, with two chamfered facades joined by a balustrade on the first floor and a finishing tower on the central axis; The style recalls mountain regionalism, surely by imposition of the client, Claudio López Bru, II Marquis of Comillas.[352].
Another architect who left samples of his work outside of Catalonia was Enric Sagnier, author of the houses on Calle de la Paz in Valencia (1903-1905, with Francisco Mora Berenguer); Fulgenci Torres i Mayans, neo-Gothic style; Also in relation to the Benedictines he carried out several interventions in the sanctuary of Pueyo (Barbastro) and in the monastery of Valvanera, in La Rioja "La Rioja (Spain)");[354] and the towers of Arbide in San Sebastián (1905), in neo-Gothic style.[355].
Isidre Gili was the author of the Garrigosa house in Logroño (1902), in a neoplateresque style with modernist elements, such as ceramic coverings and sgraffito on the façade and stairs.[356].
Outside of Spain, Eugeni Campllonch was the author of the Casal de Cataluña in Buenos Aires (1928), in a historicist style that included various ornamental solutions of Catalan modernism. In Argentina, it is also worth mentioning Julián García Núñez, from Buenos Aires by birth, but with a Catalan mother and who studied in Barcelona, where he was a disciple of Domènech i Montaner. He built some works in Barcelona, such as the Brias house and, upon returning to his country, he was the author of works that denote the influence of Catalan modernism, such as his own house in 1907 or the headquarters of the Spanish Beneficent Society (1908). origin of the architect.[358].
Another country with a notable presence of Catalan modernism was Cuba, where several Catalans worked, such as the builder Mario Rotllant, author of various works in Havana that recall the style of Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner or Puig i Cadafalch, as well as Franco-Belgian Art Nouveau and the Viennese Sezession (Díaz Blanco palace, 1910; Joan Fradera house, 1910; Dámaso house Gutiérrez, 1913);[359] the builder Jaume Cruanyas"), author of several works in Camagüey (Cruanyas House, Salesian School of Arts and Crafts);[360] the builder Ramón Magriñá"), designer of the gardens of the La Tropical brewery in Havana (1906-1912), which denote the influence of Gaudí's Park Güell;[255] the master builder Antonio Moya Andreu"), architect of several works of Gaudinian influence in Camagüey (Tibidabo soap factory, Casino Campestre grotto, 1924); 1913)
There are some architects who, even though they are Catalan, developed practically all of their work outside Catalonia and who, even following a style close to Catalan modernism, their work cannot be included in it: such would be the case of José Grases Riera, within Madrid modernism; Enrique Nieto, of Melilla modernism; or the presence of Pablo Monguió in Teruel and Ildefonso Bonells Rexach in Huesca.[364].
Other exponents were: Alexandre de Cabanyes, trained in Barcelona, Paris and Munich. His work focused on the landscape of Villanueva i Geltrú, where he lived in a farmhouse, with a style that maintains a certain romantic echo and a somewhat nervous pulse technique and intense color. Its magnificent seascapes are worth highlighting.[393] Baldomero Gili, trained in La Lonja, Madrid, Munich, Italy and Paris, evolved from a certain symbolism to an impressionism of landscapes - especially of Catalonia and Mallorca - of a Sorollesque luminosity, which enjoyed great success in Spain and America.[394] Joan Colom i Agustí was a painter, engraver, illustrator and draftsman - above all in Papitu—. As a painter he moved between realism and impressionism, while as a draftsman and engraver he developed a style of strong lines and chiaroscuros that recalls the "black" modernism of some postmodernist artists.[393] Pau Roig was a painter, watercolorist and engraver, a collaborator of L'Esquella de la Torratxa. He lived for a long time in Paris and Brussels, where he developed an impressionism of exquisite color.[393] Iu Pascual moved between modernism and impressionism, without quite finding a personal style; His production is equally irregular in terms of quality, he has works of great value and others with forced themes and harsh colors. His work denotes the influence of the Olot School, which could almost be considered a late exponent.[395].
La Renaixensa
Other artists should also be mentioned: Aleix Clapés was a disciple of Claudio Lorenzale, as well as Eugène Carrière in Paris. He showed a predilection for dramatic themes, with a perception close to expressionism, for which he has sometimes been compared to James Ensor. He collaborated with Gaudí on the interior decoration of some of his works, such as the Güell palace or the Milà house. He was also a furniture designer and directed the magazine *Hispania "Hispania (Barcelona)").[413] Josep Maria Xiró trained in Barcelona, France and Germany. He developed a symbolism influenced by Nietzschean philosophy, with fantastic and literary themes, which surpassed his pictorial qualities. He was also a poster artist and book illustrator. His career was cut short due to dementia.[414] Adrián Gual was, in addition to being a painter, playwright, set designer, theater director, decorator, poster designer, former book writer, illustrator and pioneer of cinema. Initiated in realism, he made a radical turn towards a modernism with a symbolist tendency in 1896 with his illustrated book Nocturno. Moderate walker. His best work is El dew (1897).[415] He generally focused on female figures in natural landscapes - preferably lakes -, surrounded by flowers and playing musical instruments.[416] Lluís Masriera stood out more as a goldsmith than as a painter, but he also developed a work of notable symbolist content with a refined and decorative tone.[415] His subject matter was very variable, from portraits and religious themes - where realism predominates - to fully symbolist themes, especially fairies or dancing female figures, as well as flowers, butterflies and other recurring themes of symbolism. In some of his works, color almost completely dominates the composition, a color with an enameled appearance close to the jewelry that he also designed.[416].
In this current we find a female figure, Lluïsa Vidal, daughter of the cabinetmaker Francesc Vidal y Jevellí, she was a disciple of Arcadio Mas and studied in Paris with Eugène Carrière and at the Julian Academy.[417] She worked as an illustrator in several magazines —especially Feminal—, specializing in feminine and children's themes.[414].
Lastly, it is worth mentioning Joaquín Torres García, a Uruguayan painter established for a time in Barcelona, whose work served as a link between symbolist modernism and the postmodernism of the younger generation. His style was classicist, close to Puvis de Chavannes, with simple lines and smooth colors, with a tendency towards a somewhat geometric composition, which would later lead to a certain schematism. His later work was initially close to Mediterranean Noucentisme and, later, by accentuating his schematic tendency, to constructivism "Constructivism (art)"), with an abstractizing tone.[418].
Nonell focused on the human figure, in somewhat grotesque scenes, with a pathetic tone, with blurred figures with a certain caricature air, such as his Cretins that he exhibited in Paris in 1897. The following year he focused on the theme of repatriates from the Cuban war, many of whom had to resort to begging. Another of his favorite themes was the female figure, especially gypsies. His work is based on a curvilinear, long and violent brushstroke, alternating with shorter and more repeated touches.[425] His composition is close to divisionism, but not through points, but rather through crossed lines—somewhat reminiscent of Delacroix—, where light and shadow play an equally relevant role as color, giving volume to the figures, while highlighting the thick lines of profiles and contours. With all this he managed to aesthetically capture some ugly and distressing themes - the marginal suburbs -, obtaining a result far from his initial drama.
Ricard Canals was a friend of Nonell, with whom he shared not only the Colla experience, but also some stays in Caldas de Bohí (1896) and Paris (1897). In these years, their works are quite similar, influencing each other, within the so-called "black" modernism, with a theme focused on marginality. Canals preferably focused on typical Andalusian scenes, with a more vivid color than Nonell, but with a somewhat sarcastic tone. When Nonell returned to Barcelona, Canals stayed in Paris, where he worked for the dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, until 1907, when he returned to Barcelona. Upon his return, his work denotes both the Spanish influence - Goya above all - and the French influence, supported by influences such as Daumier, Steinlein, Degas, Renoir and the Nabis. They are works that stand out for their color, light, and atmosphere, within a tone of harmony and sensuality, with free and nervous brushstrokes, with a large amount of material.[429].
Of the rest of the members of the group, Ramón Pichot was one of the central figures of the artistic core of Cadaqués and, after a season in Barcelona, where he was a regular at Els Quatre Gats, he settled in Paris, where he dedicated himself - like other artists of Spanish origin - to Hispanic themes, preferably - like Nonell - portraits of gypsies, which evolved from a sombre tone towards greater colorism, which was more attractive to the public.[416] Joaquim Sunyer studied at La Lonja, where he was a classmate of Mir and Nonell. At a very young age he moved to Paris, where he worked as a painter, engraver, draftsman and illustrator. His works from this period stand out for their material density, soft atmospheres and a completely post-impressionist color. Upon his return in 1910, his work turned towards Noucentisme.[430] Juli Vallmitjana was a goldsmith, writer and playwright, as well as a painter. His work focused, like that of his companions, on marginal themes, suburban characters, characters who, in addition to painting, served him in his written works.[431].
Another group of artists was the one that met in the tavern El Rovell de l'Ou ("the yolk of the egg"), on Hospital Street in Barcelona, among which stood out Pere Ysern, Mariano Pidelaserra, Josep-Víctor Solà and the brothers Ramón and Julio Borrell, as well as the sculptor Emili Fontbona and the illustrators Cayetano Cornet and Ramón Riera Moliner, most of them students at the Borrell Academy. The group edited a handwritten magazine titled Il Tiberio (1896-1898).[432] Xavier Nogués was also related to this group, with an initial work influenced by synthetism "Synthetism (painting)") Nabí "Nabis (artists)") and which later evolved towards Noucentisme.[433] Pere Ysern studied at the Borrell Academy and later resided for a time in Rome and Paris. Compared to the rest of the artists of the impressionist tendency, more interested in landscape, he showed a predilection for urban themes—especially the Parisian atmosphere and, especially, dancers—, with a style close to neo-impressionist divisionism, where his tendency to create masses of light colors stands out. He also made landscapes, especially of Mallorca.[391] Pidelaserra evolved from a modernism similar to that of his colleagues towards a style that mixed very diverse influences, from impressionism to a somewhat archaizing realism, as well as an incipient expressionism. His series of Montseny landscapes were created with the pointillist technique, with which he achieved, however, an intense realism, with a virtuosity that is difficult to surpass. Despite everything, for unknown reasons, he stopped painting for many years and, when he resumed it, his style had lost its initial vividness, with a somewhat primitivist tone that was poor and hesitant. In his last years, a new turn led him to an expressionism focused on social and religious themes.[434].
Another group in this trend was Els Negres ("the blacks"), whose members, influenced by Nonell's work, defended an unconventional art, with an urban theme and a preponderance of dark tones, especially charcoal black, a style in which they stood out in both painting and drawing. In 1903 they held an exhibition in Els Quatre Gats.[435] Among its members were Manuel Ainaud and Joaquim Biosca. The first, self-taught, focused on a theme of crowds of people in popular events, such as The procession of San Medin (1907). He soon abandoned artistic activity and dedicated himself to pedagogy.[436] Biosca focused on marginal and – like Nonell – gypsy themes. He later settled in Paris, where he achieved great success and was a friend of Picasso.[437].
Outside of these groups, it is worth mentioning, first of all, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa, an original painter who focused above all on urban scenes, preferably at night, where he showed the bohemian atmosphere of parties and night shows, the life of high society, with its luxurious suits and dresses, with a special taste for lighting effects, the games of lights and reflections, whether natural - from the moon and stars - or artificial lights.[438] He combined Nabi and post-impressionist influences, with an artificial and decorative style that in his last years evolved into large-format works focused above all on Hispanic folkloric themes.[439] Influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec, Klimt and Van Dongen, Anglada's work is personal and differentiated, difficult to be grouped into any of the modernist trends. It is characterized above all by the open distribution of space, the contrast of light effects and chromatic values, the abundant use of arabesque lines and the contrast of planes.[440].
Miquel Utrillo was a painter, draftsman and art critic, a friend and collaborator of Casas and Rusiñol in many of their modernist projects and architect of the Pueblo Español of Barcelona.[441] Although he studied engineering, he moved into the world of art, both in its practical and theoretical aspects, since he was director of the magazine Quatre Gats. He was also a correspondent for La Vanguardia in Paris, where he made views of the city, such as Notre Dame in snowy Paris (1890).[442] His cousin Antoni Utrillo was a painter, decorator and poster artist, as well as co-founder of the Círculo de San Lucas.[443] He was a disciple of Antonio Caba and studied as a boarder in Paris. He made portraits and religious works, collaborated with numerous magazines and created a graphic arts workshop.[444].
Eveli Torent cultivated a style similar to that of Anglada. In the beginning he frequented the Els Quatre Gats group —where Picasso made a charcoal portrait of him—, in whose premises he exhibited in 1900, as well as in the Sala Parés, and he collaborated in the magazines Luz and Quatre Gats. He later settled in Paris (1902-1913), where he exhibited at the Autumn Salon, the Champ de Mars and the Independents. At this time he made mainly Spanish folkloric songs (A los toros, 1903; Une loge aux courses de toros, 1904; Tête gitane, 1906). Upon his return, he mainly practiced portraiture, a genre in which he achieved international fame.[445].
Nicolau Raurich focused on landscaping with a personal technique, which combined a powerful color of contrasting and almost pure tones with a very thick material, with a corporeality that enhanced color and light - it was even said of him that he was one of the few who had been able to capture the essence of Mediterranean light, surpassing even the best impressionist techniques - a technique that paved the way for the art of the century, both figurative and abstract. He also stood out in his night paintings.[446].
Other exponents of the new generation were: Ricardo Urgell, son of the Olot School landscape painter Modesto Urgell, developed a style with modernist themes and post-impressionist technique, focused on interior scenes, preferably theaters and music-halls, with a deep study of color and atmosphere, as well as a rich brushstroke.[447] Francesc d'Assís Galí was a painter, engraver, poster designer and draftsman, as well as pedagogue, serving as director of the Higher School of Fine Trades. During the Second Republic he was general director of Fine Arts, a position from which he was in charge of safeguarding the works of the Prado Museum during the Civil War. As a painter he moved between symbolism and "black" modernism, without quite finding a personal style. Later he drifted towards Noucentisme.[448] Sebastià Junyer[note 7] was a painter, collector and member of Els Quatre Gats. A friend of Picasso, he traveled with him to Paris. He stood out as a landscape painter - mainly from Mallorca - in a decorative and precious style, which stands out for the richness of its color.[449] Claudio Castelucho settled in Paris, where he taught at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière. He exhibited regularly in the salons of this city, being the Catalan artist who participated the most in these salons. His initial work denotes the influence of Ramón Casas, but later he evolved into a more sketchy style, in line with postmodernism. Like other artists living in the French capital, he dealt with typical Spanish themes (bulls, flamenco, gypsies), as well as landscape and portraiture.[450] Pere Torné was also a landscape painter, with a style based on popular Catalan painting, somewhat naive, with a post-impressionist technique. He was also a cartoonist and illustrator and lived for a time in Paris, where he collaborated in the magazine Le Rire. Later it evolved into Noucentisme.[448].
It is worth mentioning two artists with a short career, since they committed suicide in their youth: Antoni Samarra and Hortensi Güell. The first had to work as a stonecutter to survive, which left him little time for art; Even so, he interacted with Els Negres —especially Ainaud— and developed a style of vivid color and light intensity, close to an incipient Fauvism, with gestural lines and dense texture. Güell, on the other hand, was from a wealthy family and was a friend of Picasso. He developed an impressionistic style of soft and bright tones, but with depressing themes, related to death and loneliness.[451].
José María Sert deserves special mention, without any specific connection to the rest of the painters around him, creator of a personal work, with a decorative and bombastic tone, a bit in the line of Anglada Camarasa. He was especially dedicated to muralism, with almost monochrome scenes, playing with sepia and gold or silver tones, reminiscent of baroque art and a certain expressionism with Goyaesque roots.[439] He was the author in 1900 of the decoration of Samuel Bing's Parisian establishment, Art Nouveau, which gave its name to the movement in France.[452].
Lastly, it is worth noting in this current the modernist period of Pablo Picasso. After an academic training, between 1895 and 1900 he lived in Barcelona - also sporadically between 1900 and 1904, alternating with Paris -,[note 8] where he trained at La Lonja and frequented Els Quatre Gats, where he exhibited in 1900, as well as at the Sala Parés in 1901. He collaborated with the magazines Pèl & Ploma and Youth. Its first dealer was the Catalan Pere Mañach. His years in Barcelona introduced him to the avant-garde environment, since at that time the Catalan capital was the city that was most up to date with European art.[454] In this sense, one of his first works in a style that could be said to be modernist were a series of charcoal portraits that he made between 1899 and 1900, emulating those of Ramón Casas that he could see in the Sala Parés in October 1899.[note 9] Likewise, he was deeply impacted by the exhibition that Anglada Camarasa held in the Sala Parés in May 1900, where he was able to learn about the post-impressionist style that was practiced at that time in France, whose influence is denoted in the works that he presented in his second exhibition at Els Quatre Gats, in July 1900, which reveal a violent chromaticism, such as Bullfighters (1900). In the autumn of that year he made his first trip to Paris.[455] In 1901 he exhibited a series of pastels in the Sala Parés and, in the summer, he returned to the French capital, where he began a new stage of his career: the blue period (1901-1904), marked by sadness and melancholy, derived from the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas in 1901. At this stage, the influence of Nonell—whom he was a neighbor on Comercio Street—is evident. of Barcelona—especially in modeling and simplified contours. Her works from this period, closer to Symbolist art, focus on poverty and loneliness, as well as motherhood and old age (La vida, 1903; Desamparados, 1903). Its main stylistic feature is the predominance of the color blue, probably due to the influence of Whistler's Nocturnes, the blue-green tones of Burne-Jones's latest works and the painting The Vigil of Saint Genevieve by Puvis de Chavannes, in an almost monochromatic blue, as well as the symbolic association of this color with spirituality and—in the work of Verlaine and Mallarmé—with decadence.[456] At this time He also painted some urban landscapes of Barcelona, especially the Gothic quarter (Terrazas de Barcelona, 1903). On the other hand, in this period he began his friendship with Emili Fontbona, who introduced him to sculpture. Since 1904, now settled permanently in Paris, his work moves away from Catalan modernism.[457].
Picasso led a small group that included Ricardo Opisso and Carlos Casagemas.[458] The former stood out more as a draftsman, as will be seen later. Casagemas was a painter and draftsman, noted for his pastels, in a style that can be included in "black" modernism. He traveled with Picasso to Paris, where he committed suicide, a fact that deeply marked the Malaga painter.[459].
Enric Clarasó, also a member of the Círculo, developed a style similar to that of Llimona, as seen in Eva (1904), a naked female figure in an attitude similar to that of Desconsuelo, whose attitude transcends the physical pose to show a transcendental emotionality.[475] She spent time in Paris, where she entered the bohemian atmosphere of Montmartre and where she perfected her technique, after the classes received at the Julian Academy. Upon his return, his work Capullo truncado (1892) constituted a manifesto of the new style; Together with Casas and Rusiñol, his exhibitions in the Sala Parés definitively consolidated modernism in the plastic arts.[476] His works from this period are fully modernist, such as Flor spiritual, Reposo, La ola (1904-1907) or Unción (1907). The majority are female figures, naked or with gauzy veils, in languid and melancholic attitudes, in models with an unfinished, unroughened appearance.[477].
He also belonged to the Eusebi Arnau Circle, an author who evolved from naturalist anecdotism to symbolist modernism.[400] He trained in La Lonja and, after working in a printing press, he entered the Masriera workshop, where, in addition to sculptures, he made jewelry and other decorative objects. After obtaining a scholarship, he traveled to Paris, where he studied at the Julian Academy. He also spent time in Florence and Rome. Upon his return, he dedicated himself especially to sculpture applied to architecture, working for architects such as Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch and Enric Sagnier; His work at the Palace of Catalan Music stood out above all. He developed decorative sculpture focused especially on female figures and vegetation, the favorite themes of modernism. He combined his sculptural work with jewelry and medals. In his final stage he switched to neoclassicism, like almost all the authors of his generation.[478] Among his most fully modernist works it is worth highlighting The wave (1905), Bust of a woman (1907) and In the market (1908).[479].
Miguel Blay trained in Paris and Rome, in an academic style, although he evolved towards modernism in works such as The First Colds (1892) and Pursuing the Illusion (1903).[480] His first fully modernist works were: Ensueño (1905); Eclosión (1908), where it denotes the Rodinian influence; the Monument to Chávarri in Portugalete, quite in tune with the work of Meunier; and the Monument to Silvestre Ochoa in Montevideo.[481] In the Palace of Catalan Music he was the author in 1909 of the sculptural group The Popular Song, which presents a female figure that personifies the Song, surrounded by various characters that represent the Catalan people, while above stands the imposing figure of Saint George.[482] Parallel to these works, he cultivated a more realistic and solemn type of statuary, to official commissions, which absorbed a good part of his time, limiting his modernist production to few examples.[481] He produced numerous works in Madrid, where he worked for a time, such as the *Monumento a Alfonso XII "Monumento a Alfonso
Lambert Escaler was one of the most purely modernist sculptors during the peak period of this movement, but later, adapting to the tastes of the time, he became more classicist. Perhaps due to the abandonment of his more personal style, he later combined sculpture with other activities, mainly as a comedian; He also designed giants and big heads. He worked mainly in polychrome terracotta, mainly female figures with messy hair and decorated with flowers, with a melancholic appearance. On numerous occasions he placed these female busts together with a mirror.[484].
Dionisio Renart studied at La Lonja and was a disciple of Josep Llimona. Likewise, he learned about Rodin's work during a stay in Paris. In addition to sculpture, he made ceramics, jewelry, medals, bookplates and other design objects; He also dedicated himself to astronomy. His works include Eva (1906), La Raza and various monuments in Spain and America.[485] He also made funerary imagery and sculpture.[486].
Carles Mani was an original, extravagant, rebellious, marginal artist. He lived most of his life in an environment of misery, which would mark his work, a heterodox work that is included in modernism due to its chronology, but is foreign to this movement. He spent time in Paris and Madrid, later residing in Barcelona until his premature death, where he worked for Gaudí in the Batlló house, the Milà house and the Sagrada Familia. His most representative work is Los degenerados (1901), a stark, expressive work, of unfinished work, with disproportion of the parts, which showed in all its crudeness the drama of poverty and which in its day caused great controversy.[77].
Finally, it is worth mentioning various sculptors such as: Llorenç Matamala, friend and collaborator of Gaudí, head of the sculpture workshop of the Sagrada Familia;[487] Alfons Juyol, who worked for architects such as Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch and Enric Sagnier;[488] Emili Fontbona, disciple of Eusebi Arnau, who developed a more personal, somewhat archaic style, simplistic and popular;[489] Antonio Parera, sculptor and medalist, studied at La Lonja, where he was a disciple of Jerónimo Suñol, his best-known work is La Caridad;[490] or Josep Maria Barnadas, disciple of Agapito Vallmitjana and member of the Círculo de San Lucas, author of religious works and sculpture applied to architecture, for which he collaborated with Puig i Cadafalch, Sagnier, Doménech Estapá or Joan Martorell.[491].
Éxtasis
Garba
Brand
Nocturn Andante Morat
Silenci
Llibre d'horas. Devocions intimes
Luz
Boires baixes
The other line of modernist drawing was more realistic and synthetic, following the example of the French artists Toulouse-Lautrec and Steinlein. Its main representatives were Ramón Casas, Ricardo Opisso, Javier Gosé and Joan Cardona, while its main means of dissemination was the magazine Quatre Gats, founded by Pere Romeu, directed by Miquel Utrillo and with Casas as artistic director. Casas marked the aesthetic line of Quatre Gats and also created his own magazine, Pèl & Ploma (1899-1903), of which he was its sole illustrator during the first year. In it he tried to introduce the Catalan public to Parisian life, with illustrations of the urban life of the French capital, beautiful and modern women and portraits of leading men of the moment. From the third year it became a more luxurious edition, with the collaboration of other artists. This magazine was followed by Forma (1904-1906), created by Casas together with Miquel Utrillo, dedicated to art, with a luxury format. He also collaborated in Hispania with humorous comics, a lesser-known facet of his.[518] Opisso was a self-taught artist - he attended the Escuela de la Lonja for only one day - and worked in the workshop of Gaudí - a friend of his father - as a draftsman and in charge of the photographic archive. He was a member of the Circle of Saint Luke and, between 1906 and 1912, he lived in Paris, where he collaborated in several magazines with a theme focused on bohemian life. On his return he collaborated with magazines such as Cu-Cut!, La Campana de Gracia and L'Esquella de la Torratxa, with a somewhat sarcastic theme, focused on urban scenes with large groups of people. He also illustrated children's books.[519] Gosé studied at La Lonja with José Luis Pellicer. He collaborated in several magazines with black drawings that brought him great success, thanks to which he settled in Paris, where he triumphed with a softly colored style that reflected the world of the Belle époque, which was very successful among the female public.[414] Cardona trained in Barcelona and Paris, where he received the influence of Steinlein and Toulouse-Lautrec. He focused on feminine themes, both Parisian and Spanish, in a style reminiscent of Anglada Camarasa, without reaching her talent. He was also a cartoonist and collaborated with several Catalan and French magazines.[520].
Of the rest, it is worth briefly mentioning: Cayetano Cornet, an engineer as well as a painter and draftsman, who stood out as a poster artist and caricaturist, collaborating with magazines such as L'Esquella de la Torratxa, Cu-Cut! and Papitu;[360] Josep Pascó, who was a cartoonist, set designer, decorator and poster designer, artistic director of the magazine Hispania and collaborator of La Ilustració Catalana;[521] Joan Llaverias, cartoonist, watercolorist, poster artist and former bookseller, specialized in drawings of animals;[443] Josep Triadó, painter, bookbinder and former bookseller as well as a cartoonist, where he stood out for his great quality, he was a disciple of Riquer and main collaborator of El Gato Negro "El Gato Negro (magazine)"), in addition to Hispania, La Ilustració Catalana and Salon Album, as well as book illustration (Contes d'uns y altres, 1904; Dafnis and Chloe, 1906);[522] Joaquín book Boires baixes by Josep María Roviralta;[523] Ricardo Marín Llovet, collaborator in several magazines and also author of exlibris;[524] Gaspar Camps, with a fully modernist style thanks to his training in Paris, was the introducer in Catalonia of the style of Alfons Mucha, with a dense and ornate style;[525] Josep Pey, painter, decorator and former bookseller as well as a draftsman, stood out for his designs for the ceramics of Antoni Serra Fiter; [524] Josep Simont, worked in Paris, England, Germany and the United States, where he collaborated in the best magazines and newspapers, achieving great fame; satirical;[527] Luis Bagará, caricaturist with a political tone in several newspapers;[527] Josep Maria Junoy, cartoonist, writer, journalist and art critic - a fervent defender of avant-garde -, noted for his illustrations in Papitu;[528] Marià Andreu, cartoonist, painter, sculptor, engraver, decorator and set designer, worked most of his life in France;[529] and Laura Albéniz, daughter of the musician Isaac Albéniz, specialized in female figures, with a somewhat naive style, with popular roots.[529].
Another genre that enjoyed a great boom was the exlibris, generally in the form of an etching or photogravure.[535] As a mark of belonging to a book, exlibris were related to culture par excellence, which is why at the time of the resurgence of Catalan culture they gained great preponderance, which even led to the founding of the Barcelona Association of Exlibris. As in other areas, one of the groups that most favored this small art was the bourgeoisie.[536] The golden age of the modernist exlibris occurred between 1900 and 1907. At that time, several associations were founded such as Amigos del Libro y de los Exlibris (1901) and Asociación de Exlibris Ibéricos (1902), as well as a magazine, the Revista Ibérica de Exlibris (1903).[537] Renowned artists dedicated themselves to its design, such as Alexandre de Riquer, Josep Triadó and Joaquim Renart. The first was one of the introducers of the bookplate thanks to his stay in England, where it was most widely used, and the dissemination of the English magazine The Studio. He made some etching ex-libris, such as that of Alfonso XIII (1904), one of the best of all Catalan ex-libris production. Most of his designs were in the symbolist style, with female figures adorned with flowers and books.[538] Triadó developed a more severe style, of Germanic influence, which he collected in Complete edition of the Triadó bookplates. Renart stood out for his sinuous style, with careful composition, which he compiled in the album Los exlibris de Renart (1907). It is also worth highlighting Ramon Casals i Vernis, who scholars such as Francesc Fontbona point to as the introducer of the genre in Catalonia after having studied it at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris; In 1907 he published a compilation titled One Hundred Selected Exlibris. Other exponents were: Alexandre Cardunets, lithographer, noted for his richness of composition; Jaume Llongueras, a painter halfway between modernism and noucentisme, although his exlibris are from the modernist period (Exlibris de Joan Llongueras, 1904); Víctor Oliva, printer, author of exlibris and illustrations for books that he made in his own printing press, which he compiled in 1907 in the Anuario Oliva;[539] and Ramón Borrell y Pla, author of numerous etching exlibris.[540].
stuccolin
gupsoxylin
Another common resource was plaster decoration, carried out since 1875 with a new technique that used tow "Tow (material)"), which provided greater lightness and more delicate finishes. The Ávila company and the plasterer craftsman Joan Coll i Molas stood out in this technique, as well as the Evelio Doria y Cía. house, a specialist in ceilings, friezes and columns made of new materials such as duroxyla, gaufré stone or regenerated marble. The use of papier-mâché was also common.[555].
Antoni Gaudí designed many of the furniture for his works, such as those in the Güell Palace, where a chaise longue and a dressing table stand out; those from the Batlló house, also made of oak, which stand out for their ergonomics, their design adapted to the human anatomy; the benches in the crypt of Colonia Güell, simple and austere, but of great ingenuity and elegance;[564] and the liturgical furniture of the Sagrada Familia). His works stand out for the combination of aesthetics and functionality, as well as for the use of unpainted wood and hardly any moldings, with a wide mastery of volumes and surfaces, as well as a great knowledge of techniques and materials.[565].
A regular collaborator of Gaudí was Eudald Puntí, for whom he made the furniture for the chapel-pantheon of the Sobrellano palace of the Marquis of Comillas (1878),[566] as well as the monastery for the chapel of the Colegio de Jesús-María de Tarragona (1880-1882),[567] the sliding doors of the Vicens house (1883-1885) and the furniture and the interior decoration of the Güell palace (1886-1889).[568] Upon Puntí's death, the workshop was renamed Planas y Casas and, a few years later, Casas y Bardés, which was one of the main cabinetmaking workshops at the beginning of the century.[569].
Joan Busquets made fully modernist designs, with a strong personality, which enjoyed great success. His style denotes Nordic, English and Austrian influences, as well as Gaudí.[570] He used pyrography instead of marquetry and, in some cases, painting on wood. His style was very ornamental, with a predominance of the coup de fouet, that is, the sinuous shape of a "whip stroke." Among his works, the furniture for the Juncadella house (1901) and that of the Arnús house, better known as "El Pinar" (1902), both by architect Enric Sagnier, stand out. He was president of the Promotion of Decorative Arts.[571].
Other exponents were: Aleix Clapés, painter, decorator and furniture designer, occasional collaborator of Gaudí, famous for his living room made in 1900 for the Ibarz family of Barcelona, currently in the Gaudí House-Museum in Park Güell;[572] the architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch, who also designed the furniture for several of his works, such as the Amatller house, the Trinxet house or his own house in Argentona, with an inspired style in Nordic art - especially Flemish -, as denoted in its architecture;[573] another architect, Josep Maria Jujol, author of some pieces for the buildings he built, such as the furniture for the Mañach store (1911); Viennese Sezession and the architect Jujol;[573] Francesc Simplicio"), a disciple of Vidal Jevellí, created a workshop of a somewhat imposed modernism, while in his last years he worked as a luthier;[575] Antoni Badrinas, painter, decorator and furniture maker, studied at the Dresden School of Arts, where he received the influence of Jugendstil, although he later opted towards noucentismo;[575] Víctor Masriera, who, like Busquets, used colored pyrography, with naturalistic motifs.[576].
We should also highlight: Josep Jordi Guardiola i Bonet, ceramist of a somewhat baroque style, whose pieces are recognizable by a strong tendency to horror vacui;[583] Enric Bassas, a sculptor who often worked with ceramics and who, despite belonging to a later generation, worked in a late modernist style;[583] Marià Burguès trained in Coimbra and Manises, to later form a workshop in Sabadell (Faianç Català), which stood out for the use of new techniques and materials;[586] Hipòlit Monseny") founded a workshop in Reus, which provided ceramics for works such as the Gasull house by Domènech i Montaner and the Comalat house by Salvador Valeri.[587].
The use of mosaic also increased in this period, whether ceramic, stoneware, marble (or Roman), vitreous enamel (or Venetian) or trencadís, used either as a floor or to cover walls.[588] Mario Maragliano and Lluís Bru stood out in this field. The first, of Italian origin, founded a workshop in Barcelona in 1884, from which he made mosaic designs for several churches and was a regular collaborator of Domènech i Montaner (San Pablo Hospital, Palace of Catalan Music), Gaudí (Sagrada Familia crypt) and Puig i Cadafalch (Macaya house, Amatller house).[589] Bru began in the field of scenography, but, after a series of professional contacts with Domènech i Montaner opted for mosaics, a field in which he achieved levels of excellence. He studied the technique in Venice, after which he worked for the best architects, such as Domènech himself or Puig i Cadafalch. Among his works, the mosaics for the Hospital de San Pablo and the Palace of Catalan Music stand out, as well as the dome of the Rotonda, a building by Adolfo Ruiz Casamitjana.[590] It is also worth mentioning Gaspar Homar who, in addition to being a cabinetmaker, worked in the field of mosaic, such as his excellent ceilings in the dining room of the Lleó Morera house, made of mosaic with porcelain relief, designed by Josep Pey.[581].
One of the greatest exponents of the use of ceramics and mosaic is the Palace of Catalan Music, where several ceramists (Escofet, Cosme Toda, Simó, Pau Pujol, Sanchis, Tarrés i Macià, Cucurny, Josep Orriols, Modest Sunyol, Pascual Ramos, Antoni Vilar) and mosaicists (Lluís Bru, Mario Maragliano, Leandro and Lluís) participated. Querol). Ceramics and mosaics cover almost the entire building, from floors and walls to wainscoting, partitions, stair risers, flower crowns, arcades, vault ribs, vaults, girders and around the glazed skylight in the roof. The mosaic stands out on walls and column shafts, as well as on the upper frieze of the façade. On the stage, the female figures that play musical instruments stand out, made in the lower part in mosaic and in the upper part in sculptural relief, made by Eusebi Arnau.[591].
One of the most relevant foundries was the Masriera y Campins Artistic Foundry, a company formed by Frederic Masriera and Antoni Campins. The first had been responsible for the foundry section of Vidal Jevellí, where the statue of Christopher Columbus "Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)" was made.[607] Mariera and Campins stood out in the lost wax technique, with which they made their so-called "salon bronzes", small pieces of sculptural lines for decoration, as well as reproductions of sculptures by Eusebi Arnau, Josep Llimona, Miguel Blay or Josep Reynés.[608] They also made various objects, such as bars, lights and furniture fixtures.[602] Frederic's son, Víctor Masriera, collaborated on many of these designs.[607].
One of the most prominent forgers was Manuel Ballarín, collaborator of several architects, especially Puig i Cadafalch, for whom he created the forging elements of the Amatller and Terrades houses; or Pedro Falqués, for whom he made the bench-lamps on Paseo de Gracia mentioned above.[609] Other renowned forgers were: Joan Oñós, blacksmith and forger, collaborator of Gaudí in several of his works;[610] Arturo Santamaría"), who founded an artistic foundry workshop that made various pieces for construction, such as doorknobs, handles and chests, as well as decorative elements such as ornamental keys and flowers. stamped;[611] and Ramon Teixé, a forger and goldsmith who combined both trades in the production of iron jewelry, sometimes combined with enamel, in a style reminiscent of the work of Josep Maria Jujol.[612].
Perhaps the most eminent figure of modernist prose was Víctor Català, pseudonym of the writer Caterina Albert. In his youth he cultivated poetry and theater, but he consolidated himself with narrative. Most of his works are located in rural environments, but used as a symbol of the struggle of human beings against their destiny, which is why they cannot be included in a traditional ruralism. His first narrative works were stories, published in collections under various titles: Drames rurals (1902), Ombrívoles (1904) and Caires Vius (1907). In them he already showed reality from the subjective vision of the author, resorting to suggestion and emotionality, to allegory and metaphor. Its themes focus on pain, illness, death, as well as evil, embodied in characters deformed by cruel destiny, against which piety is opposed as a redeeming quality. His greatest success was the novel Solitud (1905), published in installments in the magazine Joventut. Each of its chapters forms a prose poem, with a symbolic universe that analyzes human life as a struggle between good and evil.[644].
Another notable writer was Prudenci Bertrana, a faithful model of the modernist artist: idealist, rebel, somewhat decadent, lover of nature and in constant struggle with society. As a young man he dedicated himself to painting, a genre of which he later became a teacher. He began his career in literature at the age of forty, collaborating in several newspapers and magazines. It was consecrated in 1906 with the novel Josaphat "Josaphat (novel)"), which was followed by Nàufregs (1907), Crisàlides (1907) and Proses bàrbares (1911). In the first, his masterpiece, he articulates a decadent language full of dualistic symbols (field-city, good-evil, vice-virtue), with an effective story achieved through images, adjectives and sensations.[645].
Joaquim Ruyra evolved from floral romanticism to modernism and, finally, noucentisme. He cultivated prose, poetry and theater, but stood out above all as a short story writer. He only tackled one novel, La gent del mas Aulet, which he left unfinished, but with his short stories and "novelettes" he showed himself as one of the great innovators of Catalan prose. His work focuses on the idealization of nature, which he describes meticulously with a whole series of stylistic resources, populated by characters treated symbolically and subjected to a fatalistic vision of the world, where dreams and imagination take on special relevance, with a dialectal, expressive, sensual language, rich in images. His main work in the modernist period was Marines i boscatges (1903), published in the magazine Joventut, which shows influences from Poe, Hoffmann and Erckmann-Chatrian, as well as Homer, Dante and Shakespeare. It is a collection of stories set in the countryside or at sea, which stands out for its descriptive vigor and for the psychological studies of the characters.[646].
Other exponents were: Enric de Fuentes, novelist, poet and collaborator in several newspapers and magazines, wrote the psychological novels Tristors (1904), Il·lusions (1905) and Romàntics d'ara (1906);[647] Jaume Massó, narrator, poet and editor, author of the lyrical drama La fada (1897, set to music by Enric Morera) and the novel Desil·lusió (1904) (1903), Quan es fa nosa (1904), Revolta (1906) and La vida i la mort d'en Jordi Fraginals (1912), considered the best novel with an individualist aspect of modernism; Miguel Servet* (1909) decadentist—and Ildaribal (1915), his best work, with a historical theme and existential tone;[653] and Josep Maria Folch i Torres, narrator, playwright and poet, author of Lària (1904), a rural drama in the style of Víctor Català, as well as Sobirania (1907), Aigua avall (1907), Joan Endal (1909) and L'ànima en camí (1911), to later dedicate himself to children's literature.[654].
L'oda infinite
Poesies
L'Avenç
Diario de Barcelona
Paternal
Excelsior
Estrofes decadentistes
Visions i Cants
El count Arnau
At the turn of the century, Maragall moved towards the right wing of Catalanism, presenting himself as a respectable Catholic bourgeois and family man. In these years he consolidated his literary theory of the "living word" (Elogi de la Paraula, speech at his inauguration as president of the Barcelona Athenaeum, 1903), by which the poet's words mean the Beauty of Nature, the originator of aesthetic emotion; The poet is a medium and the word is his vehicle of expression, the popular word being the most "live", the one that most transmits emotion. He expanded this theory in Praise of Poetry (1909), where he added a religious and moralizing scope to poetry, integrating Poetry, Art, Beauty and Life into a whole. He expressed this creed in his collection of poems Enllà (1906), impressions of the poet about natural landscapes, in which he shows the influence of the German poet Novalis —especially in the second part of El count Arnau—, as well as Goethe again —in Nausica—. His last great work was Seqüències (1911), which includes his Spiritual Cant, where he exalts the contemplative attitude of the poet, who tries to eternalize the "beautiful moment"; as well as the third part of El count Arnau, in which he once again shows himself as a vitalist defender of redeeming individuality.[659].
Of the plethora of poets of this time it is worth mentioning: José Pijoán, poet and essayist, author of El cançoner (1905), a compilation of traditional-based poems;[660] Magín Morera, poet in both Spanish and Catalan, with a certain Maragallian influence and a mythological-based theme, among his works the compilation Hores lluminoses (1910) stands out;[661] Jeroni Zanné, poet with symbolist roots, defender of the Wagnerian idea of total art and also influenced by Goethe, Leconte de Lisle and José María de Heredia, whose career includes the work Poesies (1908), although he later evolved towards a more classicist line;[662] Lluís Via, poet, narrator and playwright, followed a vitalist and spontaneous line of Maragallian influence, as seen in Esteles (1907), Del cor als llavis (1910), Poesies (1913), Collita (1916) and A mitja veu (1920); Anyoranses (1902), Aplec de contes (1906) and Poema del Bosc (1910);[664] Emili Guanyavents, who combined symbolist, Parnassian influences and authors such as Mestres, Bécquer, Campoamor and Maeterlinck, in works such as Alades (1897) and Voliaines (1903);[665] Salvador Albert, playwright, essayist and poet of Maragallian affiliation, author of Florida de tardor (1918), Confins (1921) and Òpals (1924);[666] Francesc Pujols, poet, novelist and playwright, also of Maragallian influence, collected his poems in Llibre que conté the poems of Francesc Pujols (1904);[667] Joan Maria Guasch i Miró, equally Maragallian in his songs about nature, such as Joventut (1900), Pirinenques (1910) and Ofrena (1912);[668] Josep Lleonart, poet, novelist and playwright, nephew of Joan Maragall, cultivated an aspect heir to German Romanticism - especially Goethe - (Elegies germàniques, 1910) and another influenced by her uncle (La merla i altres cants, 1914);[669] Joan Llongueras, poet and composer, evolved from Maragallianism (Lluminoses, 1906; L'estiu al cor, 1928) to poetry religious;[670] Rafael Nogueras, poet, novelist and playwright, author of Les tenebroses (1905), a compendium of poems with a colloquial tone and a moralizing and anarchizing message, considered avant-garde for its typographic effects;[671] Guillem Tell, a poet with symbolist and decadent roots, with an artificiality opposed to Maragallian spontaneism, participated in the Floral Games between 1894 and 1900, the year in which he left poetry to dedicate himself to his profession as a notary;[672] Joan Oliva Bridgman, a poet with a vitalist tone influenced by Apeles Mestres, a friend of Picasso, who illustrated some of his poems, his works include Brometes, corrandes i altres poesies (1899) and Jovenesa (1906);[673] Antoni Isern, follower of Maragallian sponatenism, as in Sentiments (1899) and Esplets d'ànima jove (1903);[674] and Pere Prat i Gaballí, of a symbolist movement, influenced by Parnassianism and the work of Maragall, author of El temple obert (1908), Poemes de la terra i del mar (1912) and Oracions ferventes (1912).[675].
Finally, it is worth mentioning two Majorcan poets who had a great influence on Catalan literature: Miguel Costa y Llobera and Joan Alcover. The Mallorcan school "Mallorca School (literary movement)") promoted a classic and serene style, with roots in island mythology and Latin rhetoric, with the desire to create a new aesthetic and ideological framework for poetry, based on a subtle and refined language. Costa y Llobera noted the influence of authors such as Victor Hugo, Lamartine, Leconte de Lisle and Giosuè Carducci. Ordained priest, he combined his beliefs with a personal world dedicated to select and refined culture, developing a rational poetry of formal perfection, captured in Poesies (1885), De l'agre de la terra (1897), Tradicions i fantasies (1903) and Horacians (1906). For his part, Alcover worked as a lawyer and cultivated poetry as a hobby, at first in Spanish, with a style similar to Romanticism, before moving to Catalan at the turn of the century. His poetic theory is based on clarity, reality and sincerity, with an intimate tone that reveals the pain of the loss of four of his children, as well as an idealized vision of nature. His greatest work was Cap al tard (1909).[676] Other younger members of the Mallorcan school were Gabriel Alomar and Miguel de los Santos Oliver. The first cultivated a poetry with symbolist and Parnassian roots, with the influence of Carducci and D'Annunzio, as well as a Wagnerian influence in the search for musicality (The column of foc, 1911).[677] Oliver was a poet, narrator and essayist, settled in Barcelona in 1904, where he approached Catalanism, with a poetry inherited from the playful floralism of the Renaixença with modernist contributions, generally in the form of a romance "Romance (poetry)") or a ballad (Poesies, 1910).[678].
L'alegria que passa
El jardíabanat
Cigales i formigues
Els Jocs Florals de Canprosa
El pati blau
L'Hèroe
El mistic
La bona gent
L'Auca del senyor Esteve
La llei de l'herència
The painter of miracles
L'homenatge
La intel·lectual
El despatriat
La casa de l'art
The main representative of the naturalist line was Ignasi Iglesias. This current focused on social conflicts, taking as a starting point the Ibsenian drama of ideas.[685] Iglesias focused on works where the individual is immersed in an immobile class society, with a sentimental tone that distances him from a pure naturalism in the Zolian style, which was his initial intention. His first work was the drama L'argolla (1894), which already shows the Ibsenian influence. Dramatic works with a love background followed, such as Fructidor (1897), Els conscients (1898) and L'alosa (1899), which gave him popularity. His most socially committed works were El cor del poble (1902), Els vells (1903) and Les garses (1905), focused on workers' conflicts. In the 1910s he switched to comedy of manners and dramatic poems, which caused him a loss of popularity.[686].
Another prominent member of the modernist theater was Adrián Gual, who was both a playwright and businessman, theater director, set designer and actor, as well as a painter and filmmaker, founder of the Teatre Íntim company and director of the Catalan School of Dramatic Art. During a stay in Paris between 1900 and 1902 he came into contact with the work of two avant-garde directors, André Antoine and Paul Fort, the first with a naturalist style and founder of the Théâtre Libre and the second, with a symbolist tone and creator of the Théâtre d'Art. These two tendencies merged in Gual, along with the influence of Maeterlinck's work, producing a work with symbolist roots and an idealist and poetic tone. His first relevant work was Nocturn, Andante morat (1896), where he intended a total work of art of the Wagnerian type, bringing together poetry, music and painting. In 1898 he inaugurated his Teatre Íntim with Silenci, a "mundane drama", which was followed by Blancaflor (1899), of a popular nature. With Misteri de dolor (1902) he moved away from symbolism and delved into rural customs, with the aim of combining emotion and sobriety. La fi de Tomàs Reynald (1904) was his most commercial work, which was followed by the comedy Els poor menestrals (1906) and the poetic drama Donzell qui cerca muller (1910). Later he dedicated himself more to his managerial and business activities, as well as to translation.[687].
Joan Puig i Ferreter was a representative of "black" and anarchist modernism, with two stages in his theatrical career: in the first he showed the influence of Russian and Scandinavian authors, in passion dramas such as The Merry Lady (1904), Arrels Mortes (1906), Aigües Enchanted (1908), The Lady in Love (1908), Drama d'humils (1909), The great Aleix (1911) and La dolça Agnès (1914). In the second he opted for comedy, somewhat removed from modernism.[688].
Josep Pous i Pagès ventured into theater with two Ibsenian dramas (Sol ixent, 1902; El mestre nou, 1903), while later he cultivated numerous genres, such as rural drama (L'endemà de bodes, 1904), comedy (Senyora àvia vol marit, 1912; Rei i senyor, 1918), the ideological drama (Pàtria, 1914), the farce (Sang blava, 1914) and the tragicomedy (Damià Rocabruna, el bandoler, 1917). Later he focused on high bourgeois comedy: Flacs naixem, flacs vivim (1919), Papallones (1919), No tan sols de pa viu l'home (1919), Quan passava la tragèdia (1920), Tardania (1921), Primera volada (1921).[650].
Other exponents of modernist theater were: Juli Vallmitjana, author of short works with a traditional tone and symbolic component, set in low places and frequented by gypsies, with frequent use of slang (Els oposats, 1906; Els jambus, 1910; Entre gypsies, 1911; Els zin-calós, 1911; La gitana verge, 1912) xinel·laprecio* (1918) and La Ventafocs (1920);[654] Joan Torrendell cultivated the theater of ideas, with the influence of Ignasi Iglesias (Els encarrilats, 1901; Els dos esperits, 1902);[691] and Pere Cavallé, representative of the vitalist line (Aubada i posta, 1905; The land, 1918; Els germans Ferrerons, 1918).[692].
Within the performing arts, scenography had a great boom, marked as it could not be otherwise by modernist decorativeism, with the names of Francesc Soler Rovirosa, Mauricio Vilomara and Salvador Alarma being notable. The first studied at the School of La Lonja and in Paris, where he worked for a few years in the workshop of Charles-Antoine Cambon. He was the great innovator of Catalan scenography, especially at a technical level, introducing the concept of space in the sets, although in terms of style he was more of an heir to realism. He made numerous sets for the Gran Teatro del Liceo (Tristán e Isolde "Tristán e Isolde (opera)"), 1899).[693] His disciple was Vilomara, who began his career in art as a painter, but switched to scenography after watching the great shows at the Liceo, where he would create sets such as those for Lohengrin (1909). He worked for several theaters in Barcelona and Madrid, with a style that stood out for its composition and drawing technique.[694] Alarma belonged to a family of mural decorators and trained in La Lonja and in Paris, where—like Soler—he worked in the Cambon workshop. In 1889 he partnered with his uncle Miquel Moragas, establishing the company Alarma i Moragas. He worked in Barcelona, Madrid, Buenos Aires and Havana, achieving great success, with a style that stood out for its color and luminosity. Some of his best works were for the Gran Teatro del Liceo. He also collaborated with the shows organized by Luis Graner at the Sala Mercè and decorated commercial premises, such as the La Paloma dance hall (1903) and the Cine Doré (1910). He was director of the scenography section of the Barcelona Theater Institute.[695].
Isaac Albéniz and Enrique Granados followed in his wake. Albéniz began in zarzuela, until he signed a contract with an English banker to write operas, the result of which were The Magic Opal (1893), Henry Clifford "Henry Clifford (opera)") (1895), Pepita Jiménez "Pepita Jiménez (opera)") (1896) and Merlin "Merlín (Albéniz)") (1897-1902), the latter on a cycle based on King Arthur of which he only made this first title.[727] Granados premiered in 1898 his opera María del Carmen "María del Carmen (opera)"), close to zarzuela. Later, he adapted several compositions for piano in his opera Goyescas "Goyescas (opera)") (1916), which premiered at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York.[728].
Other exponents were: Enric Morera, who began in opera with La fada (1897), in the Wagnerian style. In 1906 he premiered two works at the Liceo of Barcelona, Bruniselda and Emporium, which were followed by Titaina (1912) and Tassarba (1916). Maruxa (1914) and Balada de Carnaval (1919).[730] Jaime Pahissa wrote several operas in Catalan, such as Gal·la Placídia (1913), La morisca (1919), Marianela (1923) and Princess Margarida (1928).[731] It is also worth mentioning Joan Lamote de Grignon (Hesperia, 1907)[732] and Juan Manén (Giovanna di Napoli, 1903; Acté, 1904).[733].
In this century, zarzuela resurfaced again, recovered by the new romantic taste and the nationalist resurgence. In Catalonia it was sometimes called teatre líric català ("Catalan lyrical theatre"),[734] the name also of a company founded by Enric Morera that performed thirteen plays at the Tívoli theater in 1901, but which did not obtain the expected success.[735] It developed especially in the third quarter of the century, the time of the "large genre", works in three acts influenced by buf Parisian French.[736] Towards the end of the century, the "small genre" was more fashionable, one-act works, with more recitative, with a certain influence of the Viennese operetta.[736] In this area, it is worth highlighting Amadeo Vives, author of La balada de la luz (1900), Bohemios (1903) and Doña Francisquita (1923),[730] as well as Enrique Granados, author of four works with text by Apeles Mestres (Picarol, 1901; Follet, 1903; Gaziel, 1908; Liliana, 1911).[728] Enric Morera composed zarzuelas in Spanish (El Tío Juan, 1902; La canción del náufrago, 1903) and Catalan (L'alegria que passa, 1899; Els primers freds, 1901; El comte Arnau, 1904; La Santa Espina, 1907; Nit de Reis, 1907).[729] Other exponents were: Isaac Albéniz (San Antonio de la Florida, 1894),[727] Jaime Pahissa (The prisoner of Lleida, 1906),[734] Urbano Fando Rais (Lo somni de la innocència, 1895),[737] Juan B. Lambert (Donzella qui va a la guerra, 1906, with José Sancho Marraco; El foc de Sant Joan, 1907),[738] Joan Gay (El llop pastor, 1901;
contrapás
contrapás
moixiganga
esbarts
Other works of his are: the Editorial Montaner y Simón (current Antoni Tàpies Foundation, 1881-1886), the restaurant of the Universal Exhibition of 1888 (known as Castillo de los Tres Dragones and current Museum of Zoology), the ephemeral Hotel Internacional for the same exhibition, the Thomas house (1895-1898), the Lamadrid house (1902), the Hotel España (1903) and the house Fuster (1908-1911).[143] In Reus—considered the second modernist capital after Barcelona—[144] he built the Navàs house (1901), a mansion of Venetian inspiration, with excellent furniture by Gaspar Homar, as well as the Rull houses "Casa Rull (Reus)") (1900) and Gasull (1911), adjacent on San Juan street; Likewise, he was the author of the pavilions of the Pedro Mata Institute (1899-1919), on the outskirts of the city.[144] Another work of his in Tarragona was the Espluga de Francolí Cooperative Winery (1913-1914).[145] He also left several works in Canet de Mar, where his maternal family came from, such as the Catalan Athenaeum. (1885-1887), the Roura house (1889-1892), the renovation of the Santa Florentina castle (1898-1909) and the Domènech house (1908-1910, current Domènech i Montaner Museum).[143] In Olot he was the author of the Solà-Morales house (1913-1916).[146].
His son, Pere Domènech i Roura, initially combined modernism with an incipient noucentisme, as denoted in the Marco house in Reus (1926). He collaborated in some of his father's works, such as the Espluga de Francolí Cooperative Winery, the San Pablo Hospital and the Pedro Mata Institute.[147].
At the turn of the century he finally entered into his naturalist stage, in which he perfected his personal style, drawing inspiration from the organic forms of nature and putting into practice a whole series of new structural solutions originating from Gaudí's profound analyzes of regulated geometry. Starting from a certain baroque style, his works acquired great structural richness, with shapes and volumes devoid of rationalist rigidity or any classical premise.[156] Among the works of this period are: the Calvet house (1898-1899), the Miralles portal (1900-1902), the Park Güell (1900-1914), the restoration of the Cathedral of Mallorca (1903-1914), the Batlló house (1904-1906), the Catllaràs chalet (1905) and the Can Artigas gardens in La Pobla de Lillet (1905-1907), the Milà house (1906-1910) and the crypt of the Colonia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló (1908-1918). Park Güell was a failed urbanization project for Eusebio Güell, of which only two houses were built, but the architect built in the entrance area a set of gate pavilions and a staircase that leads to a hypostyle hall and a plaza in the shape of a Greek theater of great creative ingenuity. bone-shaped columns and plant representations; The façade is topped by a vault formed by catenary arches covered with glazed ceramic in the shape of a dragon.[158] The Milà house or "la Pedrera" has a façade made of limestone, except for the upper part covered with white tiles; On the roof, the staircase exits stand out, topped with the four-armed Gaudinian cross, as well as the chimneys, covered in ceramic with shapes that suggest soldiers' helmets.[159].
In the last years of his career, dedicated almost exclusively to the Sagrada Familia, Gaudí reached the culmination of his naturalistic style: after the construction of the crypt and the apse, still in neo-Gothic style, he conceived the rest of the temple in an organic style, imitating the shapes of nature, where regulated geometric shapes abound. The temple has a Latin cross plan, with five central naves and a transept with three naves, with an apse with seven chapels and three facades dedicated to the Birth, Passion and Glory of Jesus, as well as eighteen towers. The interior resembles a forest, with a set of inclined arborescent columns, in a helical shape, creating a structure that is both simple and resistant.[160].
Seven of Gaudí's works "Works of Antoni Gaudí (World Heritage)") have been declared by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites: in 1984 Park Güell, Palau Güell and Casa Milà;[161] and, in 2005, the Nativity façade, the crypt and apse of the Sagrada Familia, Casa Vicens, Casa Batlló and crypt of Colonia Güell.[162].
Without creating a school per se, Gaudí left several disciples who followed in his footsteps to a greater or lesser extent. First of all, we must mention Francisco Berenguer, who was his right-hand man until his premature death. He was a master builder who did not obtain the title of architect, so his projects were signed by other architects, including Miquel Pascual, municipal architect of Gracia, to whom he was also assistant, which is why numerous of his works are found in Gracia. He was the author, among other works, of the Libertad market (1888-1893), the Royal Sanctuary of San José de la Montaña (1895-1902), the Burés house (1900-1905), the Moral Center of Gracia (1904), the Gracia Town Hall (1905), the Gaudí House-Museum in Park Güell (1905), the Cama house (1905) and the Rubinat (1909).[163].
Another collaborator was Juan Rubió, a prolific architect who initially practiced a Gothic eclecticism, with intensive use of the brick "Surveyor (construction)") and meticulousness in the design,[164] but, after being appointed architect of the Barcelona Provincial Council, he moved on to a baroque classicism, although always with Gaudinian survival.[165] Among his works in Barcelona, the following stand out: the Golferichs house. (1900-1901), the Alemany house (1900-1901), the Roviralta or Frare Blanc house (1903-1913), the Fornells house (1903), the Pomar house (1904-1906), the Casacoberta house (1907), the Manuel Dolcet house (1907), the Rialp house (1908) and the Roig house (1915-1918).[166] In Reus, his hometown, he was the author of the Serra Laboratories (1911-1912) and the Serra o Cuadrada house (1924-1926),[144] as well as the Anti-tuberculosis Dispensary (1926).[167] He also participated in the creation of the Colonia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló, where he built the Cooperative (with Francisco Berenguer, 1900) and various private houses, such as Ca l'Ordal (1894) and Ca l'Espinal (1900).[166][168] Other works outside the Catalan capital were: the Delgado house in Gélida (1910),[169] the church of San Miguel de la Roqueta (1912)[170] and the house of Dr. Bonada in Ripoll (1912-1914),[171] the Hospital of Campdevánol (1917), the Vilella house in Sitges (1919),[170] the renovation of the chapel and the farmhouse of Sant Pere de Clarà in Argentona (1920), the Fontana house in Rupit (1922),[171] the church of Raimat (1916-1918) and the Raventós Wineries in the same town (1924-1925),[170] the Trinxet house (1923-1925)[172] and the Puigdomènech house in San Felíu de Codinas (1912),[173] the Santo Cristo asylum in Igualada (1931-1946)[170] and the Carmen church in Manresa (1940-1952).[171].
Perhaps the most gifted was Josep Maria Jujol, who worked with Gaudí between 1907 and 1914, a time in which he already showed a strong personality and creative genius. He developed a heterodox style, in which he mixed Catholic mysticism with an almost surrealist sense of decoration, with a taste for calligraphy, organic images - close to the work of Joan Miró - and the mystification of techniques and materials, sometimes close to collage. Lloyd Wright.[175] Other works of his in Barcelona are the Sansalvador estate (1909-1910), the Queralt house (1916-1917) and the Manyach workshops (currently the Josep Maria Jujol School, 1916-1922). He carried out various works in San Juan Despí, where he was municipal architect between 1926 and 1949, among which the Torre de la Creu (1913), the Masía de Can Negre (1915-1930) and the Serra-Xaus house (1921-1927) stand out.[176] In Tarragona he designed the Metropol Theater (1908) and the Ximenis house (1914), while who, within his province, built the Bofarull house in Els Pallaresos (1914), the church of the Sacred Heart "Iglesia del Sagrado Corazón (Vistabella)") in Vistabella "Vistabella (Tarragona)") (1918-1923) and the sanctuary of the Virgin of Montserrat in Montferri (1926), both works of clear Gaudinian reminiscence in the use of arches parabolic.[177] In the postwar period he moved to an anti-avant-garde academicism of Franciscan inspiration, very far removed from his initial works.[178].
Domingo Sugrañes was Berenguer's successor as Gaudí's right-hand man; On the other hand, after the death of his teacher, he was the new director of the works of the Sagrada Familia, being in charge of finishing the Nativity façade.[179] In 1915-1916 he collaborated with Ignasi Mas i Morell on the Monumental bullring in Barcelona, an extension of the original work of Manuel Raspall, to which they added the neo-Mudejar style façade.[180] In Barcelona he built various residential buildings, among which the Miralles house (1901) and the Sivatte house (1914) stand out.[181] He was also the author of the Casino Unión Cardonense in Cardona (1916)[182] and the Pellicer house (1919) and the Mas Llevat (1924-1925) in Reus.[183] From the 1920s onwards he became closer to the noucentismo.[184].
Cèsar Martinell was one of the young students who frequented Gaudí's workshop, whose teachings he applied in his work, especially in a group of cooperative wineries built between 1918 and 1922, which were declared in 2002 Cultural Asset of National Interest: Cornudella de Montsant and Falset in the region of El Priorato "El Priorato (Tarragona)"); Nulles in the Alto Campo region; Barbará and Rocafort de Queralt in the Cuenca de Barberá region; Gandesa and Pinell de Bray in the Highlands; and San Guim de Freixanet and Cervera in the region of La Segarra.[185] Known as the "cathedrals of wine", these wineries clearly reflect the Gaudinian influence in the use of parabolic arches and the Catalan vault.[186] He was also the author of the Federación Obrera de Molins de Rey (1918),[187] the Can Vivas house in Valls, the house of the Parishioner in Ulldecona (1919-1921) and the house of Dr. Domingo in Alcover.[188].
Another of these young students was Joan Bergós, author of some works of Gaudinian influence in his youth, although he later moved into a Noucentisme with a Brunelleschian tendency. Among these works are: the altar of the Sacrament of the church of San Lorenzo "Iglesia de San Lorenzo (Lérida)") in Lérida (1919); the altar-baldachin of the New Cathedral of Lérida (1924-1925, destroyed in 1936) and the house of the Baron of Alpicat in the same city (1921); and the hermitage of San Antonio in Seo de Urgel (1924).[189].
José Canaleta evolved from modernism to noucentisme. He carried out various projects in Barcelona, Cornellá de Llobregat and Castelldefels. In Vic he built various buildings, such as the Fortuny house (1910) and the Vilaró house (1910). He was the author of the Teatro de la Cooperativa in Roda de Ter (1915).[190].
Jaume Bayó was the author of the Baurier house in Barcelona (1910) and the Grau house in Moncada and Reixach (1903), where he combined the Gaudinian and Viennese influences.[191].
[209].
Another trend was that of certain architects who, without being direct disciples of Gaudí, showed his influence, such as Bernardí Martorell, Salvador Valeri and Julio María Fossas. Martorell, nephew of Joan Martorell, one of Gaudí's teachers, was the author of the Laplana house (1907), the monastery of Santa María de Valldonzella (1910) and the convent of the Oblate Sisters of the Holy Redeemer (1919-1929), in Barcelona, as well as the Olius cemetery,[210] the Piarists church of Sabadell (1924) and the College Teresiano de Tarragona (1926).[211] Valeri evidenced the Gaudinian influence especially in the use of the Catalan vault and the parabolic arch, as seen in the Sant Jordi tower (1908) and the Comalat house (1909-1911) in Barcelona.[212] He was the municipal architect of El Papiol, where he built some reminiscent summer houses. Gaudíesque, such as Can Bou (1914).[213] In San Vicente dels Horts he was the author of the Trian house (1910-1911) and the Prats factory (1915).[214] Fossas showed the influence of Gaudí and Juan Rubió, as denoted in the Josefa Villanueva houses (1904-1909) and the Mariano Pau house (1907) of Barcelona. He was architect of the Ornament Section and the Technical Section of Property Development of Barcelona City Council, positions from which he promoted various housing complexes.[215].
Another trend was that of secessionist influence, where it is worth mentioning Alexandre Soler, Josep Maria Pericas, Eduard Ferrés and Arnau Calvet. Soler was a disciple of Domènech i Montaner, while he received the influence of Otto Wagner, as can be seen in the Heribert Pons house in Barcelona (1907-1909).[216] In Manresa, where he was a municipal architect, he was the author of the Lluís de Peguera Institute (1907-1927), the Harinera Albareda (1909) and the Casal Regionalista (1918).[217] He was also the author of the church of the Sagrada Familia de la Bauma in Castellbell and Vilar (1905-1908) and, with Francesc Guàrdia i Vial, he created the Central Market of Valencia (1910).[218] Pericas brought together the secessionist influence with the Gaudinian influence, as well as German expressionism and the Amsterdam school, as evidenced in the Carmen church in Barcelona (1910-1930).[219] He was also the author of the Anita Colomer house in Vic (1906), the Mental Clinic of Santa Coloma de Gramanet (1906, with Rafael Masó)[220] and the chapel of the Inmaculada in the Monastery of Montserrat.[221] Ferrés showed the influence of Viennese secessionism and Art Nouveau of Victor Horta, interpreted in a personal way, as seen in the Almacenes Damians in Barcelona (1917) or the Clot del Moro chalet in Castellar de Nuch (1904).[222] He was the municipal architect of Vilassar de Mar, where he built the Sitges Bassa house (1899), Ca l'Aldrufeu (current Navy Museum, 1902), the access portal to the municipal cemetery (1902-1908), the reform of the town hall (1903), Can Matamala (1916) and the Ferrés house (1916-1920).[223] He held the same position in Mataró, where he built the La Alianza Mataronense Clinic (1916-1926), the El Palau garden-colony (1924) and the Grupo Goya cheap houses (1926);[224] and, likewise, in Canet de Mar, where he created the Villa Flora (1910).[225] Calvet was the author of the Cendra i Caralt Warehouses, later the Hydroelectric Plant of Catalonia (1905); the Vallvidrera Funicular complex (lower and upper station, 1905-1906, with Bonaventura Conill); the Francesc Lalanne houses (1907-1910); and the Sarriá Market (1911-1913, with Marceliano Coquillat), all in Barcelona.[226].
Other modernist architects of interest are:
Eduard Maria Balcells gave special importance to glassmaking, a trade in which he had a workshop and which he put into practice in the Tosquella house (1906).[227] He was also the author of the Lluch house (1906), the Barnils house (1908), the Mónaco house (1910) and the Generalife house (1913) in San Cugat del Vallés[228] and the tower Montserrat in Cardedeu. He was municipal architect of Sardañola del Vallés, where he left several works: the Diviu house (1905), the Rectory of the church of San Martín "Iglesia de San Martín (Sardañola del Vallés)") (1908) and the Evarist López house (1912) and the Public Schools (1912-1915) and the town hall (1920).[229] In Sabadell he was an author. of the Sallarés Deu Factory (1914) and the Genís i Pont Office (1915).[230].
Manuel Raspall placed special emphasis on construction with brick, iron and mosaic, as well as designing stained glass windows. A disciple of Domènech i Montaner and Puig i Cadafalch, he left several works in the Vallès Oriental, where he was municipal architect of the towns of Cardedeu, Ametlla del Vallés, La Garriga, Granollers, Caldas de Montbuy and Montmeló: Millet house (1908) in Ametlla; Barbey house (1910), La Bombonera (1910), Iris chalet (1911) and Barraquer house (1912-1913) in La Garriga; Cloelia farmhouse (1904), Golferichs-Rovellat house (1908), Viader house (1917-1922) and municipal cemetery in Cardedeu;[231] Clapés house (1907-1913), Ganduxer house (1912), Can Biel (1923), Costa house (1927) in Granollers.[232] In Barcelona he was the author of the villa Hèlius (1906-1909), the Teixidor house (1911) and the renovation of El Molino "El Molino (cabaré)") (1913), as well as the Monumental bullring (1913, renovated in 1916 by Ignasi Mas and Domingo Sugrañes).[233].
For his part, Ignasi Mas began in a modernism in which the play of volumes of the facades stood out, as in the Auriga houses of San Juan Despí (1910-1911). After a few years abroad, in 1915 he was in charge of the renovation of the Monumental bullring - with Domingo Sugrañes - in a neo-Mudejar style. Gorina (1918) and, in Sitges, the Bartomeu Carbonell or del Reloj house (1913-1915).[234].
Adolfo Ruiz Casamitjana was the author of the Andreu tower or "the Rotonda" (1906-1918) in Barcelona, a house formed by two rectangular bodies articulated in the shape of an L, joined in their central part by a cylindrical body topped by a tower with a dome covered in ceramic.[236] He also built several residential buildings along the lines of Enric Sagnier: Llorenç Armengol house (1900), house Camprubí (1900-1901), Rafel house (1911).[237].
Josep Domènech i Mansana, son of Doménech Estapá, held the position of architect of the Ministry of Public Instruction since 1917, for which he built numerous schools in various Catalan towns.[238] He was also the municipal architect of Santa María de Palautordera, where he built the Town Hall and the Municipal Schools (1929),[239] as well as of San Celoni, where he built the Town Hall (1926), the Municipal Slaughterhouse (1927) and the Térmica (1925-1930);[240] and Esparraguera, where he built the municipal market (1911) and the Matadero (1916).[241].
Andreu Audet stood out for his decorative art, full of figurative reliefs and openwork lattices, as seen in works such as the Baldomer Rovira house (1899), the Hotel Colón (1902, disappeared), the Josep Sabadell house (1904) and the Editorial Seguí (1912).[242] He also built various commercial buildings and performance halls, among which the Teatro Apolo "Teatro" stands out. Apolo (Barcelona)"),[243] as well as the Casino de la Rabassada in San Cugat del Vallés (1899).[244].
Jeroni Granell developed his own personality, in a line closer to Art Nouveau, with special emphasis on the use of stained glass and sgraffito, decorative purification and a flat treatment of the facades: Granell house (1902-1904), buildings on Mallorca 219, Roger de Lauria 84, Padua 75 and Gerona 122, all between 1900 and 1903.[245][246].
To a lesser extent, it is worth mentioning architects such as: Camilo Oliveras, one of the pioneers of modernism, especially for the use of exposed brick and polychrome ceramics, a technique that he developed in the Provincial Maternity and Foundling House of Barcelona (1883-1924), with General Guitart.[247] Guitart himself was the author of the Santa Perpetua de Moguda Town Hall (1892), the Armstrong Factory in Palafrugell (1900-1904) and several buildings in San Felíu de Guixols: La Constancia casino (1888-1898), Sweis asylum (1904), El Guixolense casino (1909) and the Patxot house,[204] as well as the Governor's Tower in Alella (1916).[248] Jaume Torres i Grau was the author of the Ramos houses (1906-1908) in the Plaza de Lesseps in Barcelona, made up of three independent buildings, but united by a single façade, which stands out for its sgraffito.[249] Ferran Romeu made several houses in a style close to French Art Nouveau, in Barcelona (Carbonell house, 1897-1900; Conrad Roure house, 1901-1902; Rabaseda house, 1912) and San Cugat del Vallès (Armet House, 1898). 1916-1928) (1896-1900) and the Gener house in Villanueva y Geltrú (1902).[253] Gabriel Borrell was municipal architect of Sant Feliu de Llobregat, where he built several residential and residential buildings, among which the Cahué Raspall house (1916) stands out; in Barcelona he was the author of the Vallet house (1908), as well as the chapel of the Colegio de las Teresianas, the work of Gaudí (1908).[254] Miquel Madorell began in a classicist eclecticism, but at the end of the century he entered modernism, with a certain taste for floral and vegetal ornamentation and the use of wrought iron applications, as denoted in the Santurce house (1902-1905); He was also the author of the Ateneo Agrícola in San Sadurní de Noya (1908-1909) and the Círculo Mallorquín in Palma de Mallorca (1913).[255] Josep Amargós was the author of the Greenhouse in the Ciudadela Park (1883-1887), built for the Universal Exhibition. Later he built the Dos Rius water tower in Tibidabo (1902-1905) and the complex of the General Water Society of Barcelona in Cornellá de Llobregat (1905, now the Agbar Water Museum). floral type. Among his works, the following stand out: the Francesc Ferreres house (1898), the Iglesias house (1899), the Leandre Bou house (1906-1907), the Maldonado house "Casa Maldonado (Barcelona)") (1913-1914) and the Millàs house (1915), in Barcelona.[257] Francesc Guàrdia i Vial was Domènech i's son-in-law. Montaner, with whom he collaborated at the Palace of Catalan Music. He was the author of the Teatro Principal de Terrasa (1909, with Enric Catà) and the Mercado Central de Valencia (1910) with Alexandre Soler.[258] Josep Graner was a master builder, author of several houses in Barcelona (Sala Sagristà house, 1900; Sabata house, 1900; Emili Ferrusola house, 1904-1905; Forn house, 1905; houses Pascual Coll, 1906-1908; Fajol house, 1912) and several buildings and summer villas in Moncada and Reixach (Milans tower, 1889; Panisello Factory, 1911-1912; Town Hall, 1918; Valentí tower, 1927). His most emblematic work is the Fajol house, which stands out for its ceramic crown in the shape of a butterfly.[259] Pau Salvat was a member of the Salvat Publishing family, for which he built its headquarters in 1912-1916. His work stands out for its seal of quality, as in the Oller house (1903), where he applied a wide modernist repertoire, both in ceramics and wrought iron, marble and sgraffito, as well as capitals of zoomorphic and vegetal figures. In Igualada he was the author of the Ratés house (1905-1909).[260] Bonaventura Conill was the author of the Matas i Ramis house (1903) and the Vallvidrera Funicular complex (1905, with Arnau Calvet).[261] Marceliano Coquillat was the municipal architect of San Justo Desvern, where he renovated the Can Ginestar farmhouse (1904) and built the Pruna house. (1909). In Barcelona he was the author of the Villa Conchita (1912) and the Josefina Bonet house (1915), as well as the Sarriá Market (1911-1913), with Arnau Calvet.[262].
Apart from those mentioned, it is worth remembering at least briefly architects such as: Antoni Rovira i Rabassa (Codina house, 1892; Ramon Casas house, 1898-1899);[263] Manuel Comas i Thos (Jaume Moysi house, 1893-1895; Viuda Marfà house, 1901-1905); and Joaquim Bassegoda (Berenguer house, 1907; Rocamora houses, 1914-1918);[265] Modest Feu (Jaume Estrada house, 1906; Domènec Vila house, 1918);[266] Joan Alsina (Oller house, 1901; Pince restaurant, 1906; Franciscan church, 1906, in Barcelona; Trinxet factory, in Hospitalet de Llobregat, 1907; Valls-Brufau house, 1900, and Sabaté house, 1903, in Igualada); from Les Franqueses del Vallès, 1912);[242] José Pérez Terraza (Francesc Farreras house, 1899; Ignacio Portabella tower, 1905);[267] Telm Fernández i Janot (Felip houses, 1901 and 1905-1913);[268] Salvador Soteras (Ibarz Bernat house, 1901-1904) Sabadell) 1915-1918) and Asilo del Redós de San José and San Pedro in San Pedro de Ribas, 1901;[279] Miramar chalet in Villanueva y Geltrú, 1913).[280].
Lastly, it is necessary to point out in this period the interest given to commercial establishments, in which, along with the architectural structure, applied arts, interior design and decoration played an essential role. A good example of this is: the Múrria grocery store (1898); the Bar Torino, decorated by Antoni Gaudí, Pedro Falqués and Josep Puig i Cadafalch in 1902; the Antigua Casa Figueras pasta factory, decorated in 1902 by the painter and set designer Antoni Ros i Güell; the Bolós pharmacy, decorated in 1902 by Antoni de Falguera; the Grill Room restaurant, by the decorator Ricard de Capmany (1902); the Sarret oven (1906); the Casa Teixidor fine arts store, by Manuel Raspall (1909); the Reñé confectionery, decorated by Enric Llardent in 1910; the Puigoriol pharmacy, by Marià Pau") (1913-1914); and the El Indio lingerie, by the decorators Vilaró and Valls (1922).[281].
It is also worth noting the importance given to funerary architecture, either in the construction or renovation of cemeteries or in the construction of pantheons "Pantheon (architecture)") and hypogeums, which were another of the hallmarks of the bourgeoisie of the time, generally in conjunction with sculptures by the best architects of the time, such as Josep Llimona, Eusebi Arnau or Enric Clarasó. Some exponents would be: the Lloret de Mar cemetery, by Joaquim Artau") (1896-1901); the Vilassar de Mar cemetery, by Eduard Ferrés (1908); the Castellar del Vallés cemetery, by Antoni de Falguera (1911-1916); or the Olíus cemetery, by Bernardí Martorell (1916).[282].
• - Trias House (1903-1906), by Juli Batllevell, Barcelona.
• - Josefa Villanueva Houses (1904-1909), by Julio María Fossas, Barcelona.
• - Ignacio Portabella Tower (1905), by José Pérez Terraza, Barcelona.
• - Pérez Samanillo House, current Equestrian Circle (1910-1911), by Joan Josep Hervàs, Barcelona.
• - Rocamora Houses (1914-1918), by Bonaventura and Joaquim Bassegoda, Barcelona.
• - Barcelona Municipal Conservatory of Music (1916-1928), by Antoni de Falguera, Barcelona.
• - Sayrach House (1918), by Manuel Sayrach, Barcelona.
The Maresme has as its main point of reference its capital, Mataró, where, apart from the presence of Puig i Cadafalch or Antoni Gaudí - author of the Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense (1898-1882) -, it is worth mentioning Emili Cabanyes i Rabassa, who was municipal architect of Mataró from 1875 to 1892, a position from which he projected an expansion plan and was the author of the El Rengle Market (1891), which was completed by Puig i Cadafalch, as well as the chapel of the Sacrament of the basilica of Santa María "Basilica de Santa María (Mataró)"), in neo-Byzantine style (1892).[296] It is also worth mentioning Melchor de Palau y Simón, author of the Municipal Matadero (1906-1915).[297] In Tiana "Tiana (Barcelona)") we find the work of Ramon Maria Riudor, which evolved from neo-Gothic to a modernism of cheerful forms and decoration,[298] as denoted in the Casino (1911) and the houses Artusa (1906), Can Robert (1903-1918) and Can Fatjó (1911-1914).[299] El Masnou presents numerous summer villas, such as the Castellet de Ca l'Aymà, by Roc Cot i Cot (1907); the Eulàlia Matas house, by Domènec Boada Piera (1900-1901); and the Millet Bertran house, by Enric Fatjó Torras (1902).[300].
Another center of modernism is Vallés, divided into two regions: Vallés Occidental and Vallés Oriental. In the first there are two important cities that share the capital of the region: Terrasa and Sabadell. In Terrassa, modernism was widely disseminated, thanks to the exhibition at the Palace of Industries (current Tarrasa School of Engineering) in 1904. Tarrassa modernism stands out for its austere exteriors and richly ornamented interiors, especially in terms of carpentry, locksmithing, ceramic wainscoting and leaded stained glass windows. In this city, modernism lasted until the 1930s, later than in other places.[301] Among the architects who left work in the city, Lluís Muncunill stands out, who was a municipal architect, where he displayed a personal work that stands out for his extensive knowledge of construction techniques, both traditional and modern.[302] He was the author of the Town Hall of Tarrasa (1900-1902), the Baltasar Gorina house. (1902), the Hotel Pompidor (1903), the Farnés Warehouses (1904-1905), the Vapor Aymerich, Amat y Jover (1907, current Museum of Science and Technology of Catalonia) and the Masía Freixa (1907-1910). parabolic arches.[304] Josep Maria Coll i Bacardí had a short career due to his premature death, in which he showed a clear influence of Viennese architecture: Baumann House (1913), Torrella School Group (1916).[305] Antoni Pascual Carretero was municipal architect of Terrassa between 1904 and 1906, years in which he began work on the Independence Market.[306] Melcior Viñals was also the municipal architect of Terrassa, as well as Esparraguera and San Vicente dels Horts, in an essentially eclectic style, using modernism as another tool within his construction heritage. Among his works in the city of Egarense, the following stand out: the completion of the works on the Independence Market (1906-1908), the Alegre Sagrera House (1911) and the Almacenes Torras (1914).[307] In Sabadell, the work of Jeroni Martorell stood out, an architect of Gaudinian influence,[308] author of the Sabadell Savings Bank. (1904-1915) and the Old Industrial School of Arts and Crafts (1907-1910).[303] Josep Renom was the city's municipal architect, author of some modernist works before ascribing to Noucentisme, such as the Arimon house (1911).[309] One of the symbols of the city is the Water Tower, by Lluís Homs.[310].
In the Vallés Oriental we focus on its capital, Granollers, where Manuel Raspall worked as a municipal architect, as seen previously. He held the same position in Cardedeu, La Garriga and Ametlla del Vallés, forming the modernist core of this region. Previously, Simó Cordomí was the municipal architect of Granollers, who was the author of the Town Hall (1902-1904), in the neo-Gothic style. He was succeeded by Jeroni Martorell, author of the Blanxart house (1904). Another relevant work was the Granollers Hospital-Asylum, by Josep Maria Miró i Guibernau.[311].
Further inland are the regions of Alto Panadés, Noya "Noya (Barcelona)"), Bages, Osona and Bergadá. In the first, its main center was Villafranca del Panadés, where Santiago Güell was municipal architect, with works characterized by undulating shapes and floral decoration, among which the Magí Figueres Stores (1904), the Maria Claramunt house (1905), the Miró house (1905), the Artur Inglada house (1905), the Guasch house (1905-1909), the Ramona Quer house stand out. (1906), the Torres Casals house (1909), the Elies Valero house (1910) and the Asilo Inglada Via (1914).[312][313] Antoni Pons was also a municipal architect, author of works such as the Almacenes Jové (1921), the Cañas i Mañé house (1911) and the Rigual Artigas house (1912). Eugeni Campllonch, author of the Electra Vilafranquesa (1901), the façade of the Town Hall (1909) and the Jané Alegret house (1909) had the same position.[314] In the region of Noya there are modernist examples in its capital, Igualada, where Isidre Gili was municipal architect, author of the Matadero (1902-1905), the Serra house (1904), the Franquesa house (1905) and Cal Ratés (1908). Josep Pausas i Coll, author of the Ateneo Igualadino Schools (1916-1917) and the Pelfort Tannery (1917), was also a municipal architect. The pole of attraction for modernist architecture was Manresa, an important industrial city that grew significantly in the 20th century. Ignasi Oms i Ponsa was the municipal architect of the city, where he built works such as the Armengou House (1898), the Infantes School-Asilo (1901-1911), the Torrents House (1905), the Casino (1906), the Lluvià House (1908), the Torra House (1910) and the La Florinda Flour Mill. (1912-1913).[317] In Osona the majority of works took place in its capital, Vic, where Josep Ylla was municipal construction master, author of the Ramon Costa house (1906). Another master builder was Josep Anton Torner"), author of the Vilà house (1908). One of the most emblematic buildings is the Comella house, where the Casino is located, the work of Cayetano Buigas (1896).[318] In Bergadá, the main focus was the capital, Berga, where Roc Cot i Cot worked, who was its municipal architect between 1903 and 1908, where he built the church of the Sisters of the Desamparados, the Nuestra Señora de la Salud chapel, the Rodergas y Cía. factory, the Solanes house (1904), the Josep Viladomiu chalet and the Berguedà Casino (1908-1913). Emili Porta Galobart, author of the Town Hall (1924) and the Tomàs Pujol house (1925), also served as municipal architect.[319]
In Gerona capital, the presence of Rafael Masó stands out, who in his beginnings showed a clear Gaudinian influence, although he later evolved towards Noucentisme.[320] The secessionist influence is also evident in his work and, throughout his career, he tried to create in the city of Ter a work group similar to those of the German and Austrian werkstätte.[321] Masó designed—apart from his buildings— furniture, decorative objects and graphic arts works, which he included in his construction projects, as evidenced in one of his first works, the Masó Pharmacy (1908). The following year he carried out various works, such as the Batlle house and the Pension Fund in Gerona, the Mas El Soler in San Hilario Sacalm, the Mas La Riba in Vianya and the Coll house in Borrassá. Between 1910-1911 he built one of his most emblematic works, the Teixidor Flour Mill, which marked the end of the process of assimilation of Gaudinism, a style that little by little he simplified and drifted towards a more classicist line. In 1912 he founded the Athenea society for the promotion of art and culture, for which he built the building. In the following years his works already show a consolidated style: Masramon house in Olot (1913-1914), Ensesa house in Gerona (1913-1915), Cendra house in Anglés (1913-1915), Cases house in San Felíu de Guixols (1914-1916), Post Office building in Gerona (1915). His later work is already fully noucentista.[322] Other artists who left works in Gerona were: Isidre Bosch i Bataller (Furest house, 1904; Can Noguera, 1914), Joan Roca Pinet (Norat house, 1912-1913; Rigau house, 1914-1915; Dalmau house, 1917), Eugeni Campllonch (franquesa house, 1901), Josep Martí i Burch") (Bloc Auguet, 1912) and Enric Catà (Regàs Distilleries, 1907-1908; Gerunda Distilleries, 1911-1912).[323].
In the Alto Ampurdán region, modernism developed especially in the capital, Figueras, where Josep Azemar developed a modernism with medievalizing roots influenced by popular Catalan architecture. Municipal architect of the city, he was the author of several school and cooperative buildings, as well as the Moner house (1897), the municipal Slaughterhouse (1903-1904), the Cusí house (1904) and the Subirós house (1910). He was also the author of the Viladecans Town Hall (1892).[324] In Cadaqués we find the work of Salvador Sellés Baró"), author of the Can Seriñana house (1911).[325].
Alfred Paluzie worked in Olot, who was a municipal architect, author of the city's urbanization plan (1906),[326] as well as the Gaietà Vila house (1905), the Prat house (1907) and the Gassiot house (1911).[327] Josep Azemar was the author of the Pujador house (1911).[328].
Antoni Coll i Fort worked in the Ripollés area, author of the Buixó house in Ripoll (1902-1904), the Carles Puig house in Campdevánol (1903), the Climent Tarré house in San Juan de las Abadesas (1912-1915), the Vila house in Camprodón (1916) or the Pamias house in Ribas de Freser (1917).[305] Simó Cordomí was the author of the Can Roig house in Camprodón (1900-1901).[329] Jeroni Martorell was the author of the Ull de Ter chalet-refuge in Setcasas (1906-1909).[330].
Lérida highlighted the work of Francesc Morera, who was the city's municipal architect between 1907 and 1941. His works include: the Magí Llorens house (1905), the Bergós house (1908), the Xammar house (1908), the Matadero (1912, current Teatro del Escorxador), the Pla Market (1913), the Nadal house (1915) and the Hotel Pal·las (1915).[331][332] Francisco Lamolla, also active in Huesca, was the author of the Mestres house.[333].
In Balaguer, it is worth highlighting the work of Ignasi de Villalonga Casañés, who was the city's municipal architect. His most notable work is Can Comabella (1918-1921).[334].
In Tárrega is the Càrcer house, by Josep Coll Vilaclara (1909-1910).[335].
In Solsona it is worth highlighting the Reig Padullés house, by Emili Porta Galobart (1928)[336] and the Hotel Sant Roc, by Bernardí Martorell (1915-1929).[337].
In Cervera, it is worth highlighting the work of the master builder Manuel Minguell Rovira"), author of the Hermenegildo Colom house (1912), the Ca l'Albareda Almacenes (1915-1918) and the Rosendo Güell house (1918-1919).[338].
In the province of Tarragona we must highlight the work of Josep Maria Jujol, both in the capital and in the churches of Vistabella and Montferri, as well as the wineries of Cèsar Martinell, as has been seen. In Tarragona city, the architect with the most modernist work is Josep Maria Pujol i de Barberà, municipal architect between 1897 and 1939, author of the Rectorate of the Rovira i Virgili University (1898), the Ripoll (1910), Bofarull (1921) and Dr. Aleu (1927) houses, the Municipal Market (1911-1915), the Mas de Sorder (1913) and the Cooperativa Obrera Tarraconense (1917).[339] Ramón Salas Ricomá was the author of the railing of the Balcón del Mediterráneo (1889), the Chamber of Urban Property (1899) and his house on Rambla Nova (1907),[340] as well as the Public Schools of Falset (1909-1916) and the Miquel Granell Schools of Amposta (1911-1912).[341].
An important modernist center was Reus, Gaudí's hometown, where, paradoxically, he left no works. Apart from the works of Domènech i Montaner, Rubió and Sugrañes, already analyzed, the work of Pere Caselles stands out, who was municipal architect of Reus from 1891 to 1930, where he was the architect of a good number of works, among which the Punyed house (1892), the Homdedéu house (1893), the Munné house (1904), the Laguna house (1904), the Bank of Spain (1904), the Oenological Station (1910), the Sagarra house (1908), the Tomàs Jordi house (1909), the Grau house (1910) and the Prat de la Riba (1908-1917) and Pompeu Fabra (1926) school groups.[167].
Pablo Monguió, a disciple of Augusto Font Carreras, with whom he worked in Tarragona, worked in Tortosa. Between 1905 and 1908 he was municipal architect of the city, where he was the author of the Camós house (1904), the Pallarès chalet (1906), the Fontanet house (1906-1909), the Matheu house (1907) and the Matadero (1907-1908, current Tortosa Museum). Later he worked especially in Teruel.[342] Juan Abril Guañabens was also a municipal architect, author of the expansion of Tortosa (1886), the churches of Reparación (1899-1903) and Rosario (1910-1914) and the municipal cemetery (1900-1923).[324].
In Valls we must highlight the work of Josep Maria Vives Castellet, author of the Vives house (1916), the Agricultural Cooperative Winery (1919-1920) and the Mercadé house (1921).[343].
In Amposta, the Fàbregas house, by Ricard Giralt i Casadesús (1913-1914), stands out; and the Morales-Talarn house (1915-1916), by the master builder Joaquim Cabanes Suñer.[344].
By Lluís Domènech i Montaner, apart from the work already mentioned in Comillas, we must highlight outside Catalonia the Gran Hotel "Gran Hotel (Palma de Mallorca)") of Palma de Mallorca (1901-1903), in its day the most prominent luxury hotel in the entire state. It is a chamfered building, with a double façade that stands out for its rich sculptural ornamentation, with diaphanous basements resolved with carpanel arches and columns with angled shafts, while in the chamfer there is a hexagonal tribune topped by a pediment "Fronton (architecture)") with sculptures by Eusebi Arnau.[351] Another work of his outside the Principality was the Monte de Piedad Alfonso XIII and Caja de Ahorros de Santander (1905-1907), a more classical building, with two chamfered facades joined by a balustrade on the first floor and a finishing tower on the central axis; The style recalls mountain regionalism, surely by imposition of the client, Claudio López Bru, II Marquis of Comillas.[352].
Another architect who left samples of his work outside of Catalonia was Enric Sagnier, author of the houses on Calle de la Paz in Valencia (1903-1905, with Francisco Mora Berenguer); Fulgenci Torres i Mayans, neo-Gothic style; Also in relation to the Benedictines he carried out several interventions in the sanctuary of Pueyo (Barbastro) and in the monastery of Valvanera, in La Rioja "La Rioja (Spain)");[354] and the towers of Arbide in San Sebastián (1905), in neo-Gothic style.[355].
Isidre Gili was the author of the Garrigosa house in Logroño (1902), in a neoplateresque style with modernist elements, such as ceramic coverings and sgraffito on the façade and stairs.[356].
Outside of Spain, Eugeni Campllonch was the author of the Casal de Cataluña in Buenos Aires (1928), in a historicist style that included various ornamental solutions of Catalan modernism. In Argentina, it is also worth mentioning Julián García Núñez, from Buenos Aires by birth, but with a Catalan mother and who studied in Barcelona, where he was a disciple of Domènech i Montaner. He built some works in Barcelona, such as the Brias house and, upon returning to his country, he was the author of works that denote the influence of Catalan modernism, such as his own house in 1907 or the headquarters of the Spanish Beneficent Society (1908). origin of the architect.[358].
Another country with a notable presence of Catalan modernism was Cuba, where several Catalans worked, such as the builder Mario Rotllant, author of various works in Havana that recall the style of Gaudí, Domènech i Montaner or Puig i Cadafalch, as well as Franco-Belgian Art Nouveau and the Viennese Sezession (Díaz Blanco palace, 1910; Joan Fradera house, 1910; Dámaso house Gutiérrez, 1913);[359] the builder Jaume Cruanyas"), author of several works in Camagüey (Cruanyas House, Salesian School of Arts and Crafts);[360] the builder Ramón Magriñá"), designer of the gardens of the La Tropical brewery in Havana (1906-1912), which denote the influence of Gaudí's Park Güell;[255] the master builder Antonio Moya Andreu"), architect of several works of Gaudinian influence in Camagüey (Tibidabo soap factory, Casino Campestre grotto, 1924); 1913)
There are some architects who, even though they are Catalan, developed practically all of their work outside Catalonia and who, even following a style close to Catalan modernism, their work cannot be included in it: such would be the case of José Grases Riera, within Madrid modernism; Enrique Nieto, of Melilla modernism; or the presence of Pablo Monguió in Teruel and Ildefonso Bonells Rexach in Huesca.[364].
Other exponents were: Alexandre de Cabanyes, trained in Barcelona, Paris and Munich. His work focused on the landscape of Villanueva i Geltrú, where he lived in a farmhouse, with a style that maintains a certain romantic echo and a somewhat nervous pulse technique and intense color. Its magnificent seascapes are worth highlighting.[393] Baldomero Gili, trained in La Lonja, Madrid, Munich, Italy and Paris, evolved from a certain symbolism to an impressionism of landscapes - especially of Catalonia and Mallorca - of a Sorollesque luminosity, which enjoyed great success in Spain and America.[394] Joan Colom i Agustí was a painter, engraver, illustrator and draftsman - above all in Papitu—. As a painter he moved between realism and impressionism, while as a draftsman and engraver he developed a style of strong lines and chiaroscuros that recalls the "black" modernism of some postmodernist artists.[393] Pau Roig was a painter, watercolorist and engraver, a collaborator of L'Esquella de la Torratxa. He lived for a long time in Paris and Brussels, where he developed an impressionism of exquisite color.[393] Iu Pascual moved between modernism and impressionism, without quite finding a personal style; His production is equally irregular in terms of quality, he has works of great value and others with forced themes and harsh colors. His work denotes the influence of the Olot School, which could almost be considered a late exponent.[395].
La Renaixensa
Other artists should also be mentioned: Aleix Clapés was a disciple of Claudio Lorenzale, as well as Eugène Carrière in Paris. He showed a predilection for dramatic themes, with a perception close to expressionism, for which he has sometimes been compared to James Ensor. He collaborated with Gaudí on the interior decoration of some of his works, such as the Güell palace or the Milà house. He was also a furniture designer and directed the magazine *Hispania "Hispania (Barcelona)").[413] Josep Maria Xiró trained in Barcelona, France and Germany. He developed a symbolism influenced by Nietzschean philosophy, with fantastic and literary themes, which surpassed his pictorial qualities. He was also a poster artist and book illustrator. His career was cut short due to dementia.[414] Adrián Gual was, in addition to being a painter, playwright, set designer, theater director, decorator, poster designer, former book writer, illustrator and pioneer of cinema. Initiated in realism, he made a radical turn towards a modernism with a symbolist tendency in 1896 with his illustrated book Nocturno. Moderate walker. His best work is El dew (1897).[415] He generally focused on female figures in natural landscapes - preferably lakes -, surrounded by flowers and playing musical instruments.[416] Lluís Masriera stood out more as a goldsmith than as a painter, but he also developed a work of notable symbolist content with a refined and decorative tone.[415] His subject matter was very variable, from portraits and religious themes - where realism predominates - to fully symbolist themes, especially fairies or dancing female figures, as well as flowers, butterflies and other recurring themes of symbolism. In some of his works, color almost completely dominates the composition, a color with an enameled appearance close to the jewelry that he also designed.[416].
In this current we find a female figure, Lluïsa Vidal, daughter of the cabinetmaker Francesc Vidal y Jevellí, she was a disciple of Arcadio Mas and studied in Paris with Eugène Carrière and at the Julian Academy.[417] She worked as an illustrator in several magazines —especially Feminal—, specializing in feminine and children's themes.[414].
Lastly, it is worth mentioning Joaquín Torres García, a Uruguayan painter established for a time in Barcelona, whose work served as a link between symbolist modernism and the postmodernism of the younger generation. His style was classicist, close to Puvis de Chavannes, with simple lines and smooth colors, with a tendency towards a somewhat geometric composition, which would later lead to a certain schematism. His later work was initially close to Mediterranean Noucentisme and, later, by accentuating his schematic tendency, to constructivism "Constructivism (art)"), with an abstractizing tone.[418].
Nonell focused on the human figure, in somewhat grotesque scenes, with a pathetic tone, with blurred figures with a certain caricature air, such as his Cretins that he exhibited in Paris in 1897. The following year he focused on the theme of repatriates from the Cuban war, many of whom had to resort to begging. Another of his favorite themes was the female figure, especially gypsies. His work is based on a curvilinear, long and violent brushstroke, alternating with shorter and more repeated touches.[425] His composition is close to divisionism, but not through points, but rather through crossed lines—somewhat reminiscent of Delacroix—, where light and shadow play an equally relevant role as color, giving volume to the figures, while highlighting the thick lines of profiles and contours. With all this he managed to aesthetically capture some ugly and distressing themes - the marginal suburbs -, obtaining a result far from his initial drama.
Ricard Canals was a friend of Nonell, with whom he shared not only the Colla experience, but also some stays in Caldas de Bohí (1896) and Paris (1897). In these years, their works are quite similar, influencing each other, within the so-called "black" modernism, with a theme focused on marginality. Canals preferably focused on typical Andalusian scenes, with a more vivid color than Nonell, but with a somewhat sarcastic tone. When Nonell returned to Barcelona, Canals stayed in Paris, where he worked for the dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, until 1907, when he returned to Barcelona. Upon his return, his work denotes both the Spanish influence - Goya above all - and the French influence, supported by influences such as Daumier, Steinlein, Degas, Renoir and the Nabis. They are works that stand out for their color, light, and atmosphere, within a tone of harmony and sensuality, with free and nervous brushstrokes, with a large amount of material.[429].
Of the rest of the members of the group, Ramón Pichot was one of the central figures of the artistic core of Cadaqués and, after a season in Barcelona, where he was a regular at Els Quatre Gats, he settled in Paris, where he dedicated himself - like other artists of Spanish origin - to Hispanic themes, preferably - like Nonell - portraits of gypsies, which evolved from a sombre tone towards greater colorism, which was more attractive to the public.[416] Joaquim Sunyer studied at La Lonja, where he was a classmate of Mir and Nonell. At a very young age he moved to Paris, where he worked as a painter, engraver, draftsman and illustrator. His works from this period stand out for their material density, soft atmospheres and a completely post-impressionist color. Upon his return in 1910, his work turned towards Noucentisme.[430] Juli Vallmitjana was a goldsmith, writer and playwright, as well as a painter. His work focused, like that of his companions, on marginal themes, suburban characters, characters who, in addition to painting, served him in his written works.[431].
Another group of artists was the one that met in the tavern El Rovell de l'Ou ("the yolk of the egg"), on Hospital Street in Barcelona, among which stood out Pere Ysern, Mariano Pidelaserra, Josep-Víctor Solà and the brothers Ramón and Julio Borrell, as well as the sculptor Emili Fontbona and the illustrators Cayetano Cornet and Ramón Riera Moliner, most of them students at the Borrell Academy. The group edited a handwritten magazine titled Il Tiberio (1896-1898).[432] Xavier Nogués was also related to this group, with an initial work influenced by synthetism "Synthetism (painting)") Nabí "Nabis (artists)") and which later evolved towards Noucentisme.[433] Pere Ysern studied at the Borrell Academy and later resided for a time in Rome and Paris. Compared to the rest of the artists of the impressionist tendency, more interested in landscape, he showed a predilection for urban themes—especially the Parisian atmosphere and, especially, dancers—, with a style close to neo-impressionist divisionism, where his tendency to create masses of light colors stands out. He also made landscapes, especially of Mallorca.[391] Pidelaserra evolved from a modernism similar to that of his colleagues towards a style that mixed very diverse influences, from impressionism to a somewhat archaizing realism, as well as an incipient expressionism. His series of Montseny landscapes were created with the pointillist technique, with which he achieved, however, an intense realism, with a virtuosity that is difficult to surpass. Despite everything, for unknown reasons, he stopped painting for many years and, when he resumed it, his style had lost its initial vividness, with a somewhat primitivist tone that was poor and hesitant. In his last years, a new turn led him to an expressionism focused on social and religious themes.[434].
Another group in this trend was Els Negres ("the blacks"), whose members, influenced by Nonell's work, defended an unconventional art, with an urban theme and a preponderance of dark tones, especially charcoal black, a style in which they stood out in both painting and drawing. In 1903 they held an exhibition in Els Quatre Gats.[435] Among its members were Manuel Ainaud and Joaquim Biosca. The first, self-taught, focused on a theme of crowds of people in popular events, such as The procession of San Medin (1907). He soon abandoned artistic activity and dedicated himself to pedagogy.[436] Biosca focused on marginal and – like Nonell – gypsy themes. He later settled in Paris, where he achieved great success and was a friend of Picasso.[437].
Outside of these groups, it is worth mentioning, first of all, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa, an original painter who focused above all on urban scenes, preferably at night, where he showed the bohemian atmosphere of parties and night shows, the life of high society, with its luxurious suits and dresses, with a special taste for lighting effects, the games of lights and reflections, whether natural - from the moon and stars - or artificial lights.[438] He combined Nabi and post-impressionist influences, with an artificial and decorative style that in his last years evolved into large-format works focused above all on Hispanic folkloric themes.[439] Influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec, Klimt and Van Dongen, Anglada's work is personal and differentiated, difficult to be grouped into any of the modernist trends. It is characterized above all by the open distribution of space, the contrast of light effects and chromatic values, the abundant use of arabesque lines and the contrast of planes.[440].
Miquel Utrillo was a painter, draftsman and art critic, a friend and collaborator of Casas and Rusiñol in many of their modernist projects and architect of the Pueblo Español of Barcelona.[441] Although he studied engineering, he moved into the world of art, both in its practical and theoretical aspects, since he was director of the magazine Quatre Gats. He was also a correspondent for La Vanguardia in Paris, where he made views of the city, such as Notre Dame in snowy Paris (1890).[442] His cousin Antoni Utrillo was a painter, decorator and poster artist, as well as co-founder of the Círculo de San Lucas.[443] He was a disciple of Antonio Caba and studied as a boarder in Paris. He made portraits and religious works, collaborated with numerous magazines and created a graphic arts workshop.[444].
Eveli Torent cultivated a style similar to that of Anglada. In the beginning he frequented the Els Quatre Gats group —where Picasso made a charcoal portrait of him—, in whose premises he exhibited in 1900, as well as in the Sala Parés, and he collaborated in the magazines Luz and Quatre Gats. He later settled in Paris (1902-1913), where he exhibited at the Autumn Salon, the Champ de Mars and the Independents. At this time he made mainly Spanish folkloric songs (A los toros, 1903; Une loge aux courses de toros, 1904; Tête gitane, 1906). Upon his return, he mainly practiced portraiture, a genre in which he achieved international fame.[445].
Nicolau Raurich focused on landscaping with a personal technique, which combined a powerful color of contrasting and almost pure tones with a very thick material, with a corporeality that enhanced color and light - it was even said of him that he was one of the few who had been able to capture the essence of Mediterranean light, surpassing even the best impressionist techniques - a technique that paved the way for the art of the century, both figurative and abstract. He also stood out in his night paintings.[446].
Other exponents of the new generation were: Ricardo Urgell, son of the Olot School landscape painter Modesto Urgell, developed a style with modernist themes and post-impressionist technique, focused on interior scenes, preferably theaters and music-halls, with a deep study of color and atmosphere, as well as a rich brushstroke.[447] Francesc d'Assís Galí was a painter, engraver, poster designer and draftsman, as well as pedagogue, serving as director of the Higher School of Fine Trades. During the Second Republic he was general director of Fine Arts, a position from which he was in charge of safeguarding the works of the Prado Museum during the Civil War. As a painter he moved between symbolism and "black" modernism, without quite finding a personal style. Later he drifted towards Noucentisme.[448] Sebastià Junyer[note 7] was a painter, collector and member of Els Quatre Gats. A friend of Picasso, he traveled with him to Paris. He stood out as a landscape painter - mainly from Mallorca - in a decorative and precious style, which stands out for the richness of its color.[449] Claudio Castelucho settled in Paris, where he taught at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière. He exhibited regularly in the salons of this city, being the Catalan artist who participated the most in these salons. His initial work denotes the influence of Ramón Casas, but later he evolved into a more sketchy style, in line with postmodernism. Like other artists living in the French capital, he dealt with typical Spanish themes (bulls, flamenco, gypsies), as well as landscape and portraiture.[450] Pere Torné was also a landscape painter, with a style based on popular Catalan painting, somewhat naive, with a post-impressionist technique. He was also a cartoonist and illustrator and lived for a time in Paris, where he collaborated in the magazine Le Rire. Later it evolved into Noucentisme.[448].
It is worth mentioning two artists with a short career, since they committed suicide in their youth: Antoni Samarra and Hortensi Güell. The first had to work as a stonecutter to survive, which left him little time for art; Even so, he interacted with Els Negres —especially Ainaud— and developed a style of vivid color and light intensity, close to an incipient Fauvism, with gestural lines and dense texture. Güell, on the other hand, was from a wealthy family and was a friend of Picasso. He developed an impressionistic style of soft and bright tones, but with depressing themes, related to death and loneliness.[451].
José María Sert deserves special mention, without any specific connection to the rest of the painters around him, creator of a personal work, with a decorative and bombastic tone, a bit in the line of Anglada Camarasa. He was especially dedicated to muralism, with almost monochrome scenes, playing with sepia and gold or silver tones, reminiscent of baroque art and a certain expressionism with Goyaesque roots.[439] He was the author in 1900 of the decoration of Samuel Bing's Parisian establishment, Art Nouveau, which gave its name to the movement in France.[452].
Lastly, it is worth noting in this current the modernist period of Pablo Picasso. After an academic training, between 1895 and 1900 he lived in Barcelona - also sporadically between 1900 and 1904, alternating with Paris -,[note 8] where he trained at La Lonja and frequented Els Quatre Gats, where he exhibited in 1900, as well as at the Sala Parés in 1901. He collaborated with the magazines Pèl & Ploma and Youth. Its first dealer was the Catalan Pere Mañach. His years in Barcelona introduced him to the avant-garde environment, since at that time the Catalan capital was the city that was most up to date with European art.[454] In this sense, one of his first works in a style that could be said to be modernist were a series of charcoal portraits that he made between 1899 and 1900, emulating those of Ramón Casas that he could see in the Sala Parés in October 1899.[note 9] Likewise, he was deeply impacted by the exhibition that Anglada Camarasa held in the Sala Parés in May 1900, where he was able to learn about the post-impressionist style that was practiced at that time in France, whose influence is denoted in the works that he presented in his second exhibition at Els Quatre Gats, in July 1900, which reveal a violent chromaticism, such as Bullfighters (1900). In the autumn of that year he made his first trip to Paris.[455] In 1901 he exhibited a series of pastels in the Sala Parés and, in the summer, he returned to the French capital, where he began a new stage of his career: the blue period (1901-1904), marked by sadness and melancholy, derived from the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas in 1901. At this stage, the influence of Nonell—whom he was a neighbor on Comercio Street—is evident. of Barcelona—especially in modeling and simplified contours. Her works from this period, closer to Symbolist art, focus on poverty and loneliness, as well as motherhood and old age (La vida, 1903; Desamparados, 1903). Its main stylistic feature is the predominance of the color blue, probably due to the influence of Whistler's Nocturnes, the blue-green tones of Burne-Jones's latest works and the painting The Vigil of Saint Genevieve by Puvis de Chavannes, in an almost monochromatic blue, as well as the symbolic association of this color with spirituality and—in the work of Verlaine and Mallarmé—with decadence.[456] At this time He also painted some urban landscapes of Barcelona, especially the Gothic quarter (Terrazas de Barcelona, 1903). On the other hand, in this period he began his friendship with Emili Fontbona, who introduced him to sculpture. Since 1904, now settled permanently in Paris, his work moves away from Catalan modernism.[457].
Picasso led a small group that included Ricardo Opisso and Carlos Casagemas.[458] The former stood out more as a draftsman, as will be seen later. Casagemas was a painter and draftsman, noted for his pastels, in a style that can be included in "black" modernism. He traveled with Picasso to Paris, where he committed suicide, a fact that deeply marked the Malaga painter.[459].
Enric Clarasó, also a member of the Círculo, developed a style similar to that of Llimona, as seen in Eva (1904), a naked female figure in an attitude similar to that of Desconsuelo, whose attitude transcends the physical pose to show a transcendental emotionality.[475] She spent time in Paris, where she entered the bohemian atmosphere of Montmartre and where she perfected her technique, after the classes received at the Julian Academy. Upon his return, his work Capullo truncado (1892) constituted a manifesto of the new style; Together with Casas and Rusiñol, his exhibitions in the Sala Parés definitively consolidated modernism in the plastic arts.[476] His works from this period are fully modernist, such as Flor spiritual, Reposo, La ola (1904-1907) or Unción (1907). The majority are female figures, naked or with gauzy veils, in languid and melancholic attitudes, in models with an unfinished, unroughened appearance.[477].
He also belonged to the Eusebi Arnau Circle, an author who evolved from naturalist anecdotism to symbolist modernism.[400] He trained in La Lonja and, after working in a printing press, he entered the Masriera workshop, where, in addition to sculptures, he made jewelry and other decorative objects. After obtaining a scholarship, he traveled to Paris, where he studied at the Julian Academy. He also spent time in Florence and Rome. Upon his return, he dedicated himself especially to sculpture applied to architecture, working for architects such as Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch and Enric Sagnier; His work at the Palace of Catalan Music stood out above all. He developed decorative sculpture focused especially on female figures and vegetation, the favorite themes of modernism. He combined his sculptural work with jewelry and medals. In his final stage he switched to neoclassicism, like almost all the authors of his generation.[478] Among his most fully modernist works it is worth highlighting The wave (1905), Bust of a woman (1907) and In the market (1908).[479].
Miguel Blay trained in Paris and Rome, in an academic style, although he evolved towards modernism in works such as The First Colds (1892) and Pursuing the Illusion (1903).[480] His first fully modernist works were: Ensueño (1905); Eclosión (1908), where it denotes the Rodinian influence; the Monument to Chávarri in Portugalete, quite in tune with the work of Meunier; and the Monument to Silvestre Ochoa in Montevideo.[481] In the Palace of Catalan Music he was the author in 1909 of the sculptural group The Popular Song, which presents a female figure that personifies the Song, surrounded by various characters that represent the Catalan people, while above stands the imposing figure of Saint George.[482] Parallel to these works, he cultivated a more realistic and solemn type of statuary, to official commissions, which absorbed a good part of his time, limiting his modernist production to few examples.[481] He produced numerous works in Madrid, where he worked for a time, such as the *Monumento a Alfonso XII "Monumento a Alfonso
Lambert Escaler was one of the most purely modernist sculptors during the peak period of this movement, but later, adapting to the tastes of the time, he became more classicist. Perhaps due to the abandonment of his more personal style, he later combined sculpture with other activities, mainly as a comedian; He also designed giants and big heads. He worked mainly in polychrome terracotta, mainly female figures with messy hair and decorated with flowers, with a melancholic appearance. On numerous occasions he placed these female busts together with a mirror.[484].
Dionisio Renart studied at La Lonja and was a disciple of Josep Llimona. Likewise, he learned about Rodin's work during a stay in Paris. In addition to sculpture, he made ceramics, jewelry, medals, bookplates and other design objects; He also dedicated himself to astronomy. His works include Eva (1906), La Raza and various monuments in Spain and America.[485] He also made funerary imagery and sculpture.[486].
Carles Mani was an original, extravagant, rebellious, marginal artist. He lived most of his life in an environment of misery, which would mark his work, a heterodox work that is included in modernism due to its chronology, but is foreign to this movement. He spent time in Paris and Madrid, later residing in Barcelona until his premature death, where he worked for Gaudí in the Batlló house, the Milà house and the Sagrada Familia. His most representative work is Los degenerados (1901), a stark, expressive work, of unfinished work, with disproportion of the parts, which showed in all its crudeness the drama of poverty and which in its day caused great controversy.[77].
Finally, it is worth mentioning various sculptors such as: Llorenç Matamala, friend and collaborator of Gaudí, head of the sculpture workshop of the Sagrada Familia;[487] Alfons Juyol, who worked for architects such as Domènech i Montaner, Puig i Cadafalch and Enric Sagnier;[488] Emili Fontbona, disciple of Eusebi Arnau, who developed a more personal, somewhat archaic style, simplistic and popular;[489] Antonio Parera, sculptor and medalist, studied at La Lonja, where he was a disciple of Jerónimo Suñol, his best-known work is La Caridad;[490] or Josep Maria Barnadas, disciple of Agapito Vallmitjana and member of the Círculo de San Lucas, author of religious works and sculpture applied to architecture, for which he collaborated with Puig i Cadafalch, Sagnier, Doménech Estapá or Joan Martorell.[491].
Éxtasis
Garba
Brand
Nocturn Andante Morat
Silenci
Llibre d'horas. Devocions intimes
Luz
Boires baixes
The other line of modernist drawing was more realistic and synthetic, following the example of the French artists Toulouse-Lautrec and Steinlein. Its main representatives were Ramón Casas, Ricardo Opisso, Javier Gosé and Joan Cardona, while its main means of dissemination was the magazine Quatre Gats, founded by Pere Romeu, directed by Miquel Utrillo and with Casas as artistic director. Casas marked the aesthetic line of Quatre Gats and also created his own magazine, Pèl & Ploma (1899-1903), of which he was its sole illustrator during the first year. In it he tried to introduce the Catalan public to Parisian life, with illustrations of the urban life of the French capital, beautiful and modern women and portraits of leading men of the moment. From the third year it became a more luxurious edition, with the collaboration of other artists. This magazine was followed by Forma (1904-1906), created by Casas together with Miquel Utrillo, dedicated to art, with a luxury format. He also collaborated in Hispania with humorous comics, a lesser-known facet of his.[518] Opisso was a self-taught artist - he attended the Escuela de la Lonja for only one day - and worked in the workshop of Gaudí - a friend of his father - as a draftsman and in charge of the photographic archive. He was a member of the Circle of Saint Luke and, between 1906 and 1912, he lived in Paris, where he collaborated in several magazines with a theme focused on bohemian life. On his return he collaborated with magazines such as Cu-Cut!, La Campana de Gracia and L'Esquella de la Torratxa, with a somewhat sarcastic theme, focused on urban scenes with large groups of people. He also illustrated children's books.[519] Gosé studied at La Lonja with José Luis Pellicer. He collaborated in several magazines with black drawings that brought him great success, thanks to which he settled in Paris, where he triumphed with a softly colored style that reflected the world of the Belle époque, which was very successful among the female public.[414] Cardona trained in Barcelona and Paris, where he received the influence of Steinlein and Toulouse-Lautrec. He focused on feminine themes, both Parisian and Spanish, in a style reminiscent of Anglada Camarasa, without reaching her talent. He was also a cartoonist and collaborated with several Catalan and French magazines.[520].
Of the rest, it is worth briefly mentioning: Cayetano Cornet, an engineer as well as a painter and draftsman, who stood out as a poster artist and caricaturist, collaborating with magazines such as L'Esquella de la Torratxa, Cu-Cut! and Papitu;[360] Josep Pascó, who was a cartoonist, set designer, decorator and poster designer, artistic director of the magazine Hispania and collaborator of La Ilustració Catalana;[521] Joan Llaverias, cartoonist, watercolorist, poster artist and former bookseller, specialized in drawings of animals;[443] Josep Triadó, painter, bookbinder and former bookseller as well as a cartoonist, where he stood out for his great quality, he was a disciple of Riquer and main collaborator of El Gato Negro "El Gato Negro (magazine)"), in addition to Hispania, La Ilustració Catalana and Salon Album, as well as book illustration (Contes d'uns y altres, 1904; Dafnis and Chloe, 1906);[522] Joaquín book Boires baixes by Josep María Roviralta;[523] Ricardo Marín Llovet, collaborator in several magazines and also author of exlibris;[524] Gaspar Camps, with a fully modernist style thanks to his training in Paris, was the introducer in Catalonia of the style of Alfons Mucha, with a dense and ornate style;[525] Josep Pey, painter, decorator and former bookseller as well as a draftsman, stood out for his designs for the ceramics of Antoni Serra Fiter; [524] Josep Simont, worked in Paris, England, Germany and the United States, where he collaborated in the best magazines and newspapers, achieving great fame; satirical;[527] Luis Bagará, caricaturist with a political tone in several newspapers;[527] Josep Maria Junoy, cartoonist, writer, journalist and art critic - a fervent defender of avant-garde -, noted for his illustrations in Papitu;[528] Marià Andreu, cartoonist, painter, sculptor, engraver, decorator and set designer, worked most of his life in France;[529] and Laura Albéniz, daughter of the musician Isaac Albéniz, specialized in female figures, with a somewhat naive style, with popular roots.[529].
Another genre that enjoyed a great boom was the exlibris, generally in the form of an etching or photogravure.[535] As a mark of belonging to a book, exlibris were related to culture par excellence, which is why at the time of the resurgence of Catalan culture they gained great preponderance, which even led to the founding of the Barcelona Association of Exlibris. As in other areas, one of the groups that most favored this small art was the bourgeoisie.[536] The golden age of the modernist exlibris occurred between 1900 and 1907. At that time, several associations were founded such as Amigos del Libro y de los Exlibris (1901) and Asociación de Exlibris Ibéricos (1902), as well as a magazine, the Revista Ibérica de Exlibris (1903).[537] Renowned artists dedicated themselves to its design, such as Alexandre de Riquer, Josep Triadó and Joaquim Renart. The first was one of the introducers of the bookplate thanks to his stay in England, where it was most widely used, and the dissemination of the English magazine The Studio. He made some etching ex-libris, such as that of Alfonso XIII (1904), one of the best of all Catalan ex-libris production. Most of his designs were in the symbolist style, with female figures adorned with flowers and books.[538] Triadó developed a more severe style, of Germanic influence, which he collected in Complete edition of the Triadó bookplates. Renart stood out for his sinuous style, with careful composition, which he compiled in the album Los exlibris de Renart (1907). It is also worth highlighting Ramon Casals i Vernis, who scholars such as Francesc Fontbona point to as the introducer of the genre in Catalonia after having studied it at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris; In 1907 he published a compilation titled One Hundred Selected Exlibris. Other exponents were: Alexandre Cardunets, lithographer, noted for his richness of composition; Jaume Llongueras, a painter halfway between modernism and noucentisme, although his exlibris are from the modernist period (Exlibris de Joan Llongueras, 1904); Víctor Oliva, printer, author of exlibris and illustrations for books that he made in his own printing press, which he compiled in 1907 in the Anuario Oliva;[539] and Ramón Borrell y Pla, author of numerous etching exlibris.[540].
stuccolin
gupsoxylin
Another common resource was plaster decoration, carried out since 1875 with a new technique that used tow "Tow (material)"), which provided greater lightness and more delicate finishes. The Ávila company and the plasterer craftsman Joan Coll i Molas stood out in this technique, as well as the Evelio Doria y Cía. house, a specialist in ceilings, friezes and columns made of new materials such as duroxyla, gaufré stone or regenerated marble. The use of papier-mâché was also common.[555].
Antoni Gaudí designed many of the furniture for his works, such as those in the Güell Palace, where a chaise longue and a dressing table stand out; those from the Batlló house, also made of oak, which stand out for their ergonomics, their design adapted to the human anatomy; the benches in the crypt of Colonia Güell, simple and austere, but of great ingenuity and elegance;[564] and the liturgical furniture of the Sagrada Familia). His works stand out for the combination of aesthetics and functionality, as well as for the use of unpainted wood and hardly any moldings, with a wide mastery of volumes and surfaces, as well as a great knowledge of techniques and materials.[565].
A regular collaborator of Gaudí was Eudald Puntí, for whom he made the furniture for the chapel-pantheon of the Sobrellano palace of the Marquis of Comillas (1878),[566] as well as the monastery for the chapel of the Colegio de Jesús-María de Tarragona (1880-1882),[567] the sliding doors of the Vicens house (1883-1885) and the furniture and the interior decoration of the Güell palace (1886-1889).[568] Upon Puntí's death, the workshop was renamed Planas y Casas and, a few years later, Casas y Bardés, which was one of the main cabinetmaking workshops at the beginning of the century.[569].
Joan Busquets made fully modernist designs, with a strong personality, which enjoyed great success. His style denotes Nordic, English and Austrian influences, as well as Gaudí.[570] He used pyrography instead of marquetry and, in some cases, painting on wood. His style was very ornamental, with a predominance of the coup de fouet, that is, the sinuous shape of a "whip stroke." Among his works, the furniture for the Juncadella house (1901) and that of the Arnús house, better known as "El Pinar" (1902), both by architect Enric Sagnier, stand out. He was president of the Promotion of Decorative Arts.[571].
Other exponents were: Aleix Clapés, painter, decorator and furniture designer, occasional collaborator of Gaudí, famous for his living room made in 1900 for the Ibarz family of Barcelona, currently in the Gaudí House-Museum in Park Güell;[572] the architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch, who also designed the furniture for several of his works, such as the Amatller house, the Trinxet house or his own house in Argentona, with an inspired style in Nordic art - especially Flemish -, as denoted in its architecture;[573] another architect, Josep Maria Jujol, author of some pieces for the buildings he built, such as the furniture for the Mañach store (1911); Viennese Sezession and the architect Jujol;[573] Francesc Simplicio"), a disciple of Vidal Jevellí, created a workshop of a somewhat imposed modernism, while in his last years he worked as a luthier;[575] Antoni Badrinas, painter, decorator and furniture maker, studied at the Dresden School of Arts, where he received the influence of Jugendstil, although he later opted towards noucentismo;[575] Víctor Masriera, who, like Busquets, used colored pyrography, with naturalistic motifs.[576].
We should also highlight: Josep Jordi Guardiola i Bonet, ceramist of a somewhat baroque style, whose pieces are recognizable by a strong tendency to horror vacui;[583] Enric Bassas, a sculptor who often worked with ceramics and who, despite belonging to a later generation, worked in a late modernist style;[583] Marià Burguès trained in Coimbra and Manises, to later form a workshop in Sabadell (Faianç Català), which stood out for the use of new techniques and materials;[586] Hipòlit Monseny") founded a workshop in Reus, which provided ceramics for works such as the Gasull house by Domènech i Montaner and the Comalat house by Salvador Valeri.[587].
The use of mosaic also increased in this period, whether ceramic, stoneware, marble (or Roman), vitreous enamel (or Venetian) or trencadís, used either as a floor or to cover walls.[588] Mario Maragliano and Lluís Bru stood out in this field. The first, of Italian origin, founded a workshop in Barcelona in 1884, from which he made mosaic designs for several churches and was a regular collaborator of Domènech i Montaner (San Pablo Hospital, Palace of Catalan Music), Gaudí (Sagrada Familia crypt) and Puig i Cadafalch (Macaya house, Amatller house).[589] Bru began in the field of scenography, but, after a series of professional contacts with Domènech i Montaner opted for mosaics, a field in which he achieved levels of excellence. He studied the technique in Venice, after which he worked for the best architects, such as Domènech himself or Puig i Cadafalch. Among his works, the mosaics for the Hospital de San Pablo and the Palace of Catalan Music stand out, as well as the dome of the Rotonda, a building by Adolfo Ruiz Casamitjana.[590] It is also worth mentioning Gaspar Homar who, in addition to being a cabinetmaker, worked in the field of mosaic, such as his excellent ceilings in the dining room of the Lleó Morera house, made of mosaic with porcelain relief, designed by Josep Pey.[581].
One of the greatest exponents of the use of ceramics and mosaic is the Palace of Catalan Music, where several ceramists (Escofet, Cosme Toda, Simó, Pau Pujol, Sanchis, Tarrés i Macià, Cucurny, Josep Orriols, Modest Sunyol, Pascual Ramos, Antoni Vilar) and mosaicists (Lluís Bru, Mario Maragliano, Leandro and Lluís) participated. Querol). Ceramics and mosaics cover almost the entire building, from floors and walls to wainscoting, partitions, stair risers, flower crowns, arcades, vault ribs, vaults, girders and around the glazed skylight in the roof. The mosaic stands out on walls and column shafts, as well as on the upper frieze of the façade. On the stage, the female figures that play musical instruments stand out, made in the lower part in mosaic and in the upper part in sculptural relief, made by Eusebi Arnau.[591].
One of the most relevant foundries was the Masriera y Campins Artistic Foundry, a company formed by Frederic Masriera and Antoni Campins. The first had been responsible for the foundry section of Vidal Jevellí, where the statue of Christopher Columbus "Monument to Columbus (Barcelona)" was made.[607] Mariera and Campins stood out in the lost wax technique, with which they made their so-called "salon bronzes", small pieces of sculptural lines for decoration, as well as reproductions of sculptures by Eusebi Arnau, Josep Llimona, Miguel Blay or Josep Reynés.[608] They also made various objects, such as bars, lights and furniture fixtures.[602] Frederic's son, Víctor Masriera, collaborated on many of these designs.[607].
One of the most prominent forgers was Manuel Ballarín, collaborator of several architects, especially Puig i Cadafalch, for whom he created the forging elements of the Amatller and Terrades houses; or Pedro Falqués, for whom he made the bench-lamps on Paseo de Gracia mentioned above.[609] Other renowned forgers were: Joan Oñós, blacksmith and forger, collaborator of Gaudí in several of his works;[610] Arturo Santamaría"), who founded an artistic foundry workshop that made various pieces for construction, such as doorknobs, handles and chests, as well as decorative elements such as ornamental keys and flowers. stamped;[611] and Ramon Teixé, a forger and goldsmith who combined both trades in the production of iron jewelry, sometimes combined with enamel, in a style reminiscent of the work of Josep Maria Jujol.[612].
Perhaps the most eminent figure of modernist prose was Víctor Català, pseudonym of the writer Caterina Albert. In his youth he cultivated poetry and theater, but he consolidated himself with narrative. Most of his works are located in rural environments, but used as a symbol of the struggle of human beings against their destiny, which is why they cannot be included in a traditional ruralism. His first narrative works were stories, published in collections under various titles: Drames rurals (1902), Ombrívoles (1904) and Caires Vius (1907). In them he already showed reality from the subjective vision of the author, resorting to suggestion and emotionality, to allegory and metaphor. Its themes focus on pain, illness, death, as well as evil, embodied in characters deformed by cruel destiny, against which piety is opposed as a redeeming quality. His greatest success was the novel Solitud (1905), published in installments in the magazine Joventut. Each of its chapters forms a prose poem, with a symbolic universe that analyzes human life as a struggle between good and evil.[644].
Another notable writer was Prudenci Bertrana, a faithful model of the modernist artist: idealist, rebel, somewhat decadent, lover of nature and in constant struggle with society. As a young man he dedicated himself to painting, a genre of which he later became a teacher. He began his career in literature at the age of forty, collaborating in several newspapers and magazines. It was consecrated in 1906 with the novel Josaphat "Josaphat (novel)"), which was followed by Nàufregs (1907), Crisàlides (1907) and Proses bàrbares (1911). In the first, his masterpiece, he articulates a decadent language full of dualistic symbols (field-city, good-evil, vice-virtue), with an effective story achieved through images, adjectives and sensations.[645].
Joaquim Ruyra evolved from floral romanticism to modernism and, finally, noucentisme. He cultivated prose, poetry and theater, but stood out above all as a short story writer. He only tackled one novel, La gent del mas Aulet, which he left unfinished, but with his short stories and "novelettes" he showed himself as one of the great innovators of Catalan prose. His work focuses on the idealization of nature, which he describes meticulously with a whole series of stylistic resources, populated by characters treated symbolically and subjected to a fatalistic vision of the world, where dreams and imagination take on special relevance, with a dialectal, expressive, sensual language, rich in images. His main work in the modernist period was Marines i boscatges (1903), published in the magazine Joventut, which shows influences from Poe, Hoffmann and Erckmann-Chatrian, as well as Homer, Dante and Shakespeare. It is a collection of stories set in the countryside or at sea, which stands out for its descriptive vigor and for the psychological studies of the characters.[646].
Other exponents were: Enric de Fuentes, novelist, poet and collaborator in several newspapers and magazines, wrote the psychological novels Tristors (1904), Il·lusions (1905) and Romàntics d'ara (1906);[647] Jaume Massó, narrator, poet and editor, author of the lyrical drama La fada (1897, set to music by Enric Morera) and the novel Desil·lusió (1904) (1903), Quan es fa nosa (1904), Revolta (1906) and La vida i la mort d'en Jordi Fraginals (1912), considered the best novel with an individualist aspect of modernism; Miguel Servet* (1909) decadentist—and Ildaribal (1915), his best work, with a historical theme and existential tone;[653] and Josep Maria Folch i Torres, narrator, playwright and poet, author of Lària (1904), a rural drama in the style of Víctor Català, as well as Sobirania (1907), Aigua avall (1907), Joan Endal (1909) and L'ànima en camí (1911), to later dedicate himself to children's literature.[654].
L'oda infinite
Poesies
L'Avenç
Diario de Barcelona
Paternal
Excelsior
Estrofes decadentistes
Visions i Cants
El count Arnau
At the turn of the century, Maragall moved towards the right wing of Catalanism, presenting himself as a respectable Catholic bourgeois and family man. In these years he consolidated his literary theory of the "living word" (Elogi de la Paraula, speech at his inauguration as president of the Barcelona Athenaeum, 1903), by which the poet's words mean the Beauty of Nature, the originator of aesthetic emotion; The poet is a medium and the word is his vehicle of expression, the popular word being the most "live", the one that most transmits emotion. He expanded this theory in Praise of Poetry (1909), where he added a religious and moralizing scope to poetry, integrating Poetry, Art, Beauty and Life into a whole. He expressed this creed in his collection of poems Enllà (1906), impressions of the poet about natural landscapes, in which he shows the influence of the German poet Novalis —especially in the second part of El count Arnau—, as well as Goethe again —in Nausica—. His last great work was Seqüències (1911), which includes his Spiritual Cant, where he exalts the contemplative attitude of the poet, who tries to eternalize the "beautiful moment"; as well as the third part of El count Arnau, in which he once again shows himself as a vitalist defender of redeeming individuality.[659].
Of the plethora of poets of this time it is worth mentioning: José Pijoán, poet and essayist, author of El cançoner (1905), a compilation of traditional-based poems;[660] Magín Morera, poet in both Spanish and Catalan, with a certain Maragallian influence and a mythological-based theme, among his works the compilation Hores lluminoses (1910) stands out;[661] Jeroni Zanné, poet with symbolist roots, defender of the Wagnerian idea of total art and also influenced by Goethe, Leconte de Lisle and José María de Heredia, whose career includes the work Poesies (1908), although he later evolved towards a more classicist line;[662] Lluís Via, poet, narrator and playwright, followed a vitalist and spontaneous line of Maragallian influence, as seen in Esteles (1907), Del cor als llavis (1910), Poesies (1913), Collita (1916) and A mitja veu (1920); Anyoranses (1902), Aplec de contes (1906) and Poema del Bosc (1910);[664] Emili Guanyavents, who combined symbolist, Parnassian influences and authors such as Mestres, Bécquer, Campoamor and Maeterlinck, in works such as Alades (1897) and Voliaines (1903);[665] Salvador Albert, playwright, essayist and poet of Maragallian affiliation, author of Florida de tardor (1918), Confins (1921) and Òpals (1924);[666] Francesc Pujols, poet, novelist and playwright, also of Maragallian influence, collected his poems in Llibre que conté the poems of Francesc Pujols (1904);[667] Joan Maria Guasch i Miró, equally Maragallian in his songs about nature, such as Joventut (1900), Pirinenques (1910) and Ofrena (1912);[668] Josep Lleonart, poet, novelist and playwright, nephew of Joan Maragall, cultivated an aspect heir to German Romanticism - especially Goethe - (Elegies germàniques, 1910) and another influenced by her uncle (La merla i altres cants, 1914);[669] Joan Llongueras, poet and composer, evolved from Maragallianism (Lluminoses, 1906; L'estiu al cor, 1928) to poetry religious;[670] Rafael Nogueras, poet, novelist and playwright, author of Les tenebroses (1905), a compendium of poems with a colloquial tone and a moralizing and anarchizing message, considered avant-garde for its typographic effects;[671] Guillem Tell, a poet with symbolist and decadent roots, with an artificiality opposed to Maragallian spontaneism, participated in the Floral Games between 1894 and 1900, the year in which he left poetry to dedicate himself to his profession as a notary;[672] Joan Oliva Bridgman, a poet with a vitalist tone influenced by Apeles Mestres, a friend of Picasso, who illustrated some of his poems, his works include Brometes, corrandes i altres poesies (1899) and Jovenesa (1906);[673] Antoni Isern, follower of Maragallian sponatenism, as in Sentiments (1899) and Esplets d'ànima jove (1903);[674] and Pere Prat i Gaballí, of a symbolist movement, influenced by Parnassianism and the work of Maragall, author of El temple obert (1908), Poemes de la terra i del mar (1912) and Oracions ferventes (1912).[675].
Finally, it is worth mentioning two Majorcan poets who had a great influence on Catalan literature: Miguel Costa y Llobera and Joan Alcover. The Mallorcan school "Mallorca School (literary movement)") promoted a classic and serene style, with roots in island mythology and Latin rhetoric, with the desire to create a new aesthetic and ideological framework for poetry, based on a subtle and refined language. Costa y Llobera noted the influence of authors such as Victor Hugo, Lamartine, Leconte de Lisle and Giosuè Carducci. Ordained priest, he combined his beliefs with a personal world dedicated to select and refined culture, developing a rational poetry of formal perfection, captured in Poesies (1885), De l'agre de la terra (1897), Tradicions i fantasies (1903) and Horacians (1906). For his part, Alcover worked as a lawyer and cultivated poetry as a hobby, at first in Spanish, with a style similar to Romanticism, before moving to Catalan at the turn of the century. His poetic theory is based on clarity, reality and sincerity, with an intimate tone that reveals the pain of the loss of four of his children, as well as an idealized vision of nature. His greatest work was Cap al tard (1909).[676] Other younger members of the Mallorcan school were Gabriel Alomar and Miguel de los Santos Oliver. The first cultivated a poetry with symbolist and Parnassian roots, with the influence of Carducci and D'Annunzio, as well as a Wagnerian influence in the search for musicality (The column of foc, 1911).[677] Oliver was a poet, narrator and essayist, settled in Barcelona in 1904, where he approached Catalanism, with a poetry inherited from the playful floralism of the Renaixença with modernist contributions, generally in the form of a romance "Romance (poetry)") or a ballad (Poesies, 1910).[678].
L'alegria que passa
El jardíabanat
Cigales i formigues
Els Jocs Florals de Canprosa
El pati blau
L'Hèroe
El mistic
La bona gent
L'Auca del senyor Esteve
La llei de l'herència
The painter of miracles
L'homenatge
La intel·lectual
El despatriat
La casa de l'art
The main representative of the naturalist line was Ignasi Iglesias. This current focused on social conflicts, taking as a starting point the Ibsenian drama of ideas.[685] Iglesias focused on works where the individual is immersed in an immobile class society, with a sentimental tone that distances him from a pure naturalism in the Zolian style, which was his initial intention. His first work was the drama L'argolla (1894), which already shows the Ibsenian influence. Dramatic works with a love background followed, such as Fructidor (1897), Els conscients (1898) and L'alosa (1899), which gave him popularity. His most socially committed works were El cor del poble (1902), Els vells (1903) and Les garses (1905), focused on workers' conflicts. In the 1910s he switched to comedy of manners and dramatic poems, which caused him a loss of popularity.[686].
Another prominent member of the modernist theater was Adrián Gual, who was both a playwright and businessman, theater director, set designer and actor, as well as a painter and filmmaker, founder of the Teatre Íntim company and director of the Catalan School of Dramatic Art. During a stay in Paris between 1900 and 1902 he came into contact with the work of two avant-garde directors, André Antoine and Paul Fort, the first with a naturalist style and founder of the Théâtre Libre and the second, with a symbolist tone and creator of the Théâtre d'Art. These two tendencies merged in Gual, along with the influence of Maeterlinck's work, producing a work with symbolist roots and an idealist and poetic tone. His first relevant work was Nocturn, Andante morat (1896), where he intended a total work of art of the Wagnerian type, bringing together poetry, music and painting. In 1898 he inaugurated his Teatre Íntim with Silenci, a "mundane drama", which was followed by Blancaflor (1899), of a popular nature. With Misteri de dolor (1902) he moved away from symbolism and delved into rural customs, with the aim of combining emotion and sobriety. La fi de Tomàs Reynald (1904) was his most commercial work, which was followed by the comedy Els poor menestrals (1906) and the poetic drama Donzell qui cerca muller (1910). Later he dedicated himself more to his managerial and business activities, as well as to translation.[687].
Joan Puig i Ferreter was a representative of "black" and anarchist modernism, with two stages in his theatrical career: in the first he showed the influence of Russian and Scandinavian authors, in passion dramas such as The Merry Lady (1904), Arrels Mortes (1906), Aigües Enchanted (1908), The Lady in Love (1908), Drama d'humils (1909), The great Aleix (1911) and La dolça Agnès (1914). In the second he opted for comedy, somewhat removed from modernism.[688].
Josep Pous i Pagès ventured into theater with two Ibsenian dramas (Sol ixent, 1902; El mestre nou, 1903), while later he cultivated numerous genres, such as rural drama (L'endemà de bodes, 1904), comedy (Senyora àvia vol marit, 1912; Rei i senyor, 1918), the ideological drama (Pàtria, 1914), the farce (Sang blava, 1914) and the tragicomedy (Damià Rocabruna, el bandoler, 1917). Later he focused on high bourgeois comedy: Flacs naixem, flacs vivim (1919), Papallones (1919), No tan sols de pa viu l'home (1919), Quan passava la tragèdia (1920), Tardania (1921), Primera volada (1921).[650].
Other exponents of modernist theater were: Juli Vallmitjana, author of short works with a traditional tone and symbolic component, set in low places and frequented by gypsies, with frequent use of slang (Els oposats, 1906; Els jambus, 1910; Entre gypsies, 1911; Els zin-calós, 1911; La gitana verge, 1912) xinel·laprecio* (1918) and La Ventafocs (1920);[654] Joan Torrendell cultivated the theater of ideas, with the influence of Ignasi Iglesias (Els encarrilats, 1901; Els dos esperits, 1902);[691] and Pere Cavallé, representative of the vitalist line (Aubada i posta, 1905; The land, 1918; Els germans Ferrerons, 1918).[692].
Within the performing arts, scenography had a great boom, marked as it could not be otherwise by modernist decorativeism, with the names of Francesc Soler Rovirosa, Mauricio Vilomara and Salvador Alarma being notable. The first studied at the School of La Lonja and in Paris, where he worked for a few years in the workshop of Charles-Antoine Cambon. He was the great innovator of Catalan scenography, especially at a technical level, introducing the concept of space in the sets, although in terms of style he was more of an heir to realism. He made numerous sets for the Gran Teatro del Liceo (Tristán e Isolde "Tristán e Isolde (opera)"), 1899).[693] His disciple was Vilomara, who began his career in art as a painter, but switched to scenography after watching the great shows at the Liceo, where he would create sets such as those for Lohengrin (1909). He worked for several theaters in Barcelona and Madrid, with a style that stood out for its composition and drawing technique.[694] Alarma belonged to a family of mural decorators and trained in La Lonja and in Paris, where—like Soler—he worked in the Cambon workshop. In 1889 he partnered with his uncle Miquel Moragas, establishing the company Alarma i Moragas. He worked in Barcelona, Madrid, Buenos Aires and Havana, achieving great success, with a style that stood out for its color and luminosity. Some of his best works were for the Gran Teatro del Liceo. He also collaborated with the shows organized by Luis Graner at the Sala Mercè and decorated commercial premises, such as the La Paloma dance hall (1903) and the Cine Doré (1910). He was director of the scenography section of the Barcelona Theater Institute.[695].
Isaac Albéniz and Enrique Granados followed in his wake. Albéniz began in zarzuela, until he signed a contract with an English banker to write operas, the result of which were The Magic Opal (1893), Henry Clifford "Henry Clifford (opera)") (1895), Pepita Jiménez "Pepita Jiménez (opera)") (1896) and Merlin "Merlín (Albéniz)") (1897-1902), the latter on a cycle based on King Arthur of which he only made this first title.[727] Granados premiered in 1898 his opera María del Carmen "María del Carmen (opera)"), close to zarzuela. Later, he adapted several compositions for piano in his opera Goyescas "Goyescas (opera)") (1916), which premiered at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York.[728].
Other exponents were: Enric Morera, who began in opera with La fada (1897), in the Wagnerian style. In 1906 he premiered two works at the Liceo of Barcelona, Bruniselda and Emporium, which were followed by Titaina (1912) and Tassarba (1916). Maruxa (1914) and Balada de Carnaval (1919).[730] Jaime Pahissa wrote several operas in Catalan, such as Gal·la Placídia (1913), La morisca (1919), Marianela (1923) and Princess Margarida (1928).[731] It is also worth mentioning Joan Lamote de Grignon (Hesperia, 1907)[732] and Juan Manén (Giovanna di Napoli, 1903; Acté, 1904).[733].
In this century, zarzuela resurfaced again, recovered by the new romantic taste and the nationalist resurgence. In Catalonia it was sometimes called teatre líric català ("Catalan lyrical theatre"),[734] the name also of a company founded by Enric Morera that performed thirteen plays at the Tívoli theater in 1901, but which did not obtain the expected success.[735] It developed especially in the third quarter of the century, the time of the "large genre", works in three acts influenced by buf Parisian French.[736] Towards the end of the century, the "small genre" was more fashionable, one-act works, with more recitative, with a certain influence of the Viennese operetta.[736] In this area, it is worth highlighting Amadeo Vives, author of La balada de la luz (1900), Bohemios (1903) and Doña Francisquita (1923),[730] as well as Enrique Granados, author of four works with text by Apeles Mestres (Picarol, 1901; Follet, 1903; Gaziel, 1908; Liliana, 1911).[728] Enric Morera composed zarzuelas in Spanish (El Tío Juan, 1902; La canción del náufrago, 1903) and Catalan (L'alegria que passa, 1899; Els primers freds, 1901; El comte Arnau, 1904; La Santa Espina, 1907; Nit de Reis, 1907).[729] Other exponents were: Isaac Albéniz (San Antonio de la Florida, 1894),[727] Jaime Pahissa (The prisoner of Lleida, 1906),[734] Urbano Fando Rais (Lo somni de la innocència, 1895),[737] Juan B. Lambert (Donzella qui va a la guerra, 1906, with José Sancho Marraco; El foc de Sant Joan, 1907),[738] Joan Gay (El llop pastor, 1901;