LCA process

The LCA process is currently the most popular method for performing life cycle assessment, and is often referred to as the SETAC-EPA method due to the role played by the Society of Toxicology and Environmental Chemistry and corporate carbon accounting in the development of this method. Inputs and outputs from multiple stages of a product's life are investigated in turn, and the results are aggregated into single impact metrics, such as eutrophication, toxicity, and greenhouse gases. There are three tools on the market to help researchers perform process LCA (such as GaBi, Ecoinvent and Umberto). These tools contain data from previous researchers on the environmental impact of materials and processes that are then assembled by the user to form a system.

Economic input-output LCA

Economic input-output LCA uses economic input-output tables and industry-level environmental data to construct a database of environmental impacts per dollar sold by an industry.[10]​ The boundary problem of the LCA process is solved with this method because the economic input-output table captures the interrelationships of all economic sectors; however, aggregated industry categories limit the specificity of the results.[11]​[12]​ Input-output analysis is a very powerful tool for the initial assessment of corporate carbon footprints, to inform supply chain greenhouse gas accounting, and to establish priorities for more detailed analyses.[13][14]​.

Hybrid LCA

Many methods have been discussed for hybrid life cycle assessments, which aim to combine the infinite limit of EIO-LCA with the specificity of the LCA process.[15]​[16]​.

A special case of carbon accounting is the accounting process undertaken to measure the amount of carbon dioxide equivalent that will not be released into the atmosphere as a result of flexible mechanism projects under the Kyoto Protocol.[17]​ These projects therefore include (but are not limited to) renewable energy projects and biomass, fodder and tree plantations.

Carbon emissions reports measure the emissions produced by a specific activity or process. It can identify factors that contribute to climate change and help outline subsequent policies to limit climate change.

Typically, carbon emissions reports capture the results of processes such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, agricultural practices including the use of fertilizers and livestock raising, industrial processes, refrigeration, and the use of various consumer products.[18]​[19]​.

There are laws and policies in several countries that require large power plants and manufacturing plants to report their emissions to the appropriate authorities, including the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System,[20]​ or in the US as part of the Environmental Protection Agency's Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP).[21]​.

Contenido

En los Estados Unidos, a pesar de varios intentos de instituir una legislación de informes obligatorios, ninguno se implementó hasta después del derrame de petróleo de Deepwater Horizon"). Debido a este derrame de petróleo y al aumento de la conciencia social sobre el medio ambiente, la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los EE.UU. (EPA) inició el Programa de Notificación de Emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero que se convirtió en ley en 2010. Obliga al 85% de los principales emisores del país a informar cuánto gas de efecto invernadero han emitido.

En el primer año de esta legislación, solo el 85% de los principales emisores de la nación debían informar sobre sus emisiones anuales. Los planes eran aumentar ligeramente este número cada año para aumentar la información disponible sobre la cantidad de emisiones producidas.

Este programa fue el paso inicial para contrarrestar el aumento de la tasa de emisiones. Mientras que muchos creen que si las empresas se ven obligadas a informar sobre sus emisiones, estarán más inclinadas a reducir su impacto; este efecto no se ha estudiado a fondo. La capacidad de atraer más inversiones ya que los consumidores prefieren productos respetuosos con el medio ambiente es otro posible incentivo, pero nuevamente hay poca evidencia que respalde afirmaciones sólidas.

En 2013, el gobierno de coalición del Reino Unido implementó informes de carbono obligatorios, requiriendo que todas las empresas del Reino Unido que cotizan en el mercado principal de la Bolsa de Valores de Londres, alrededor de 1.100 de las empresas que cotizan en bolsa más grandes del Reino Unido, informen sobre sus emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero cada año.[22]​[23]​.

Optimized energy and carbon reporting

Simplified Energy and Carbon Reporting (SECR) is a UK Government requirement for companies' mandatory annual reporting and disclosure of energy and carbon information. SECR came into force in 2019. While the primary intention of SECR is public awareness, cost reduction and reduction of carbon emissions, BEIS also wanted to introduce a more streamlined process.[24]​.

The ISO 14064 standards for greenhouse gas accounting and verification published in 2006 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) provide government and industry with an integrated set of tools for programs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well as for emissions trading.[25]​.

ISO 14064-1:2006 specifies organization-level principles and requirements for the quantification and reporting of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals. It includes requirements for the design, development, management, reporting and verification of an organization's GHG inventory.[26]​.

ISO 14064-2:2006 specifies principles and requirements and provides project-level guidance for the quantification, monitoring and reporting of activities intended to cause greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions or removal improvements. It includes requirements to plan a GHG project, identify and select GHG sources, sinks and reservoirs relevant to the project and baseline scenario, monitor, quantify, document and report GHG project performance, and manage data quality.[27]​.

ISO 14064-3:2006 specifies principles and requirements and provides guidance for those carrying out or managing the validation and/or verification of greenhouse gas (GHG) claims. It can be applied to organizational or project quantification of GHG, including GHG quantification, monitoring and reporting performed in accordance with ISO 14064-1 or ISO 14064-2.[28]​.

Many companies have adopted the standards set by the Greenhouse Gas Protocol (GHGP),[29]​ a partnership between the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD). The Greenhouse Gas Protocol provides accounting and reporting standards, sector guidance, calculation tools and training for businesses and governments. It establishes a comprehensive, global and standardized framework to measure and manage emissions from operations, value chains, products, cities and public and private sector policies.[30]​ A new universal method for logistics emissions accounting was launched in 2016[31]​ in collaboration with the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the Greenhouse Gas Protocol.[32]​ It is called the GLEC (Global Logistics Emissions Council) framework.[33]​ The Greenhouse Gas Protocol is recognized by the UK Government as an independent standard for greenhouse gas reporting.[34]​ The Greenhouse Gas Protocol[35]​ divides emissions into 3 areas.

Scope 1 covers all direct Greenhouse Gas emissions from a company.[36]​ Includes fuel combustion, company vehicles, and fugitive emissions.[37]​.

Scope 2 covers indirect emissions of Greenhouse Gases derived from the consumption of purchased electricity, heat or steam.[36]​.

Scope 3 covers other indirect emissions, such as the extraction and production of purchased materials and fuels, transportation-related activities in vehicles not owned or controlled by the reporting entity, electricity-related activities (e.g., transmission and distribution losses) not covered in Scope 2, outsourced activities, waste disposal, etc.[36] Scope 3 emissions (also known as value chain emissions) often represent the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions. greenhouse effect and, in some cases, can represent up to 90% of the total carbon impact.[38]​.

Emissions called "upstream", which include all emissions that occur in the life cycle of a material/product until sale by the producer.[39]​.

Emissions that occur in the life cycle of a material/product after sale by the producer. This includes distribution and storage, use of the product, and end of life.[40]​.

ISO (International Organization for Standardization), the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) under which they have agreed to jointly promote ISO 14064 and WRI standards. and the WBCSD GHG Protocol standards. The move responds to concerns among companies and GHG program designers that the two standards may not be consistent and mutually supportive. In fact, for corporate accounting, the requirements and guidance contained in the ISO and GHG Protocol standards are consistent and designed so that they can be used in a complementary manner.[41]​.

Si bien han surgido críticas específicas de los informes de carbono, la práctica real de cómo las organizaciones contabilizan e informan las emisiones sigue siendo poco estudiada.[42]​[43]​ Los estudios de prácticas de contabilidad e informes de carbono apuntan a externalidades sistémicas y plantean problemas sobre la responsabilidad.[44]​.

Double counting

When two or more people or organizations claim ownership of specific emissions reductions or carbon offsets.[45]​ Double counting occurs when the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions resulting from a particular activity are allocated to multiple parties in a supply chain, such that the total emissions allocated exceed the actual total emissions of that activity.[46]​ For investors and according to cross-asset footprint calculations, double counting can reach around 30-40% of the issues in an institutional investor's portfolio.[47]​.

Data quality

A 2004 study of corporate disclosure of greenhouse gas emissions found that only 15 percent of companies that disclose GHG emissions report them in a way that the authors consider complete with respect to the scope of emissions, the type of emissions, and the reporting threshold.[48]​.

LCA process

The LCA process is currently the most popular method for performing life cycle assessment, and is often referred to as the SETAC-EPA method due to the role played by the Society of Toxicology and Environmental Chemistry and corporate carbon accounting in the development of this method. Inputs and outputs from multiple stages of a product's life are investigated in turn, and the results are aggregated into single impact metrics, such as eutrophication, toxicity, and greenhouse gases. There are three tools on the market to help researchers perform process LCA (such as GaBi, Ecoinvent and Umberto). These tools contain data from previous researchers on the environmental impact of materials and processes that are then assembled by the user to form a system.

Economic input-output LCA

Economic input-output LCA uses economic input-output tables and industry-level environmental data to construct a database of environmental impacts per dollar sold by an industry.[10]​ The boundary problem of the LCA process is solved with this method because the economic input-output table captures the interrelationships of all economic sectors; however, aggregated industry categories limit the specificity of the results.[11]​[12]​ Input-output analysis is a very powerful tool for the initial assessment of corporate carbon footprints, to inform supply chain greenhouse gas accounting, and to establish priorities for more detailed analyses.[13][14]​.

Hybrid LCA

Many methods have been discussed for hybrid life cycle assessments, which aim to combine the infinite limit of EIO-LCA with the specificity of the LCA process.[15]​[16]​.

A special case of carbon accounting is the accounting process undertaken to measure the amount of carbon dioxide equivalent that will not be released into the atmosphere as a result of flexible mechanism projects under the Kyoto Protocol.[17]​ These projects therefore include (but are not limited to) renewable energy projects and biomass, fodder and tree plantations.

Carbon emissions reports measure the emissions produced by a specific activity or process. It can identify factors that contribute to climate change and help outline subsequent policies to limit climate change.

Typically, carbon emissions reports capture the results of processes such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, agricultural practices including the use of fertilizers and livestock raising, industrial processes, refrigeration, and the use of various consumer products.[18]​[19]​.

There are laws and policies in several countries that require large power plants and manufacturing plants to report their emissions to the appropriate authorities, including the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System,[20]​ or in the US as part of the Environmental Protection Agency's Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP).[21]​.

Contenido

En los Estados Unidos, a pesar de varios intentos de instituir una legislación de informes obligatorios, ninguno se implementó hasta después del derrame de petróleo de Deepwater Horizon"). Debido a este derrame de petróleo y al aumento de la conciencia social sobre el medio ambiente, la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los EE.UU. (EPA) inició el Programa de Notificación de Emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero que se convirtió en ley en 2010. Obliga al 85% de los principales emisores del país a informar cuánto gas de efecto invernadero han emitido.

En el primer año de esta legislación, solo el 85% de los principales emisores de la nación debían informar sobre sus emisiones anuales. Los planes eran aumentar ligeramente este número cada año para aumentar la información disponible sobre la cantidad de emisiones producidas.

Este programa fue el paso inicial para contrarrestar el aumento de la tasa de emisiones. Mientras que muchos creen que si las empresas se ven obligadas a informar sobre sus emisiones, estarán más inclinadas a reducir su impacto; este efecto no se ha estudiado a fondo. La capacidad de atraer más inversiones ya que los consumidores prefieren productos respetuosos con el medio ambiente es otro posible incentivo, pero nuevamente hay poca evidencia que respalde afirmaciones sólidas.

En 2013, el gobierno de coalición del Reino Unido implementó informes de carbono obligatorios, requiriendo que todas las empresas del Reino Unido que cotizan en el mercado principal de la Bolsa de Valores de Londres, alrededor de 1.100 de las empresas que cotizan en bolsa más grandes del Reino Unido, informen sobre sus emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero cada año.[22]​[23]​.

Optimized energy and carbon reporting

Simplified Energy and Carbon Reporting (SECR) is a UK Government requirement for companies' mandatory annual reporting and disclosure of energy and carbon information. SECR came into force in 2019. While the primary intention of SECR is public awareness, cost reduction and reduction of carbon emissions, BEIS also wanted to introduce a more streamlined process.[24]​.

The ISO 14064 standards for greenhouse gas accounting and verification published in 2006 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) provide government and industry with an integrated set of tools for programs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well as for emissions trading.[25]​.

ISO 14064-1:2006 specifies organization-level principles and requirements for the quantification and reporting of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals. It includes requirements for the design, development, management, reporting and verification of an organization's GHG inventory.[26]​.

ISO 14064-2:2006 specifies principles and requirements and provides project-level guidance for the quantification, monitoring and reporting of activities intended to cause greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions or removal improvements. It includes requirements to plan a GHG project, identify and select GHG sources, sinks and reservoirs relevant to the project and baseline scenario, monitor, quantify, document and report GHG project performance, and manage data quality.[27]​.

ISO 14064-3:2006 specifies principles and requirements and provides guidance for those carrying out or managing the validation and/or verification of greenhouse gas (GHG) claims. It can be applied to organizational or project quantification of GHG, including GHG quantification, monitoring and reporting performed in accordance with ISO 14064-1 or ISO 14064-2.[28]​.

Many companies have adopted the standards set by the Greenhouse Gas Protocol (GHGP),[29]​ a partnership between the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD). The Greenhouse Gas Protocol provides accounting and reporting standards, sector guidance, calculation tools and training for businesses and governments. It establishes a comprehensive, global and standardized framework to measure and manage emissions from operations, value chains, products, cities and public and private sector policies.[30]​ A new universal method for logistics emissions accounting was launched in 2016[31]​ in collaboration with the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the Greenhouse Gas Protocol.[32]​ It is called the GLEC (Global Logistics Emissions Council) framework.[33]​ The Greenhouse Gas Protocol is recognized by the UK Government as an independent standard for greenhouse gas reporting.[34]​ The Greenhouse Gas Protocol[35]​ divides emissions into 3 areas.

Scope 1 covers all direct Greenhouse Gas emissions from a company.[36]​ Includes fuel combustion, company vehicles, and fugitive emissions.[37]​.

Scope 2 covers indirect emissions of Greenhouse Gases derived from the consumption of purchased electricity, heat or steam.[36]​.

Scope 3 covers other indirect emissions, such as the extraction and production of purchased materials and fuels, transportation-related activities in vehicles not owned or controlled by the reporting entity, electricity-related activities (e.g., transmission and distribution losses) not covered in Scope 2, outsourced activities, waste disposal, etc.[36] Scope 3 emissions (also known as value chain emissions) often represent the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions. greenhouse effect and, in some cases, can represent up to 90% of the total carbon impact.[38]​.

Emissions called "upstream", which include all emissions that occur in the life cycle of a material/product until sale by the producer.[39]​.

Emissions that occur in the life cycle of a material/product after sale by the producer. This includes distribution and storage, use of the product, and end of life.[40]​.

ISO (International Organization for Standardization), the World Resources Institute (WRI) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) under which they have agreed to jointly promote ISO 14064 and WRI standards. and the WBCSD GHG Protocol standards. The move responds to concerns among companies and GHG program designers that the two standards may not be consistent and mutually supportive. In fact, for corporate accounting, the requirements and guidance contained in the ISO and GHG Protocol standards are consistent and designed so that they can be used in a complementary manner.[41]​.

Si bien han surgido críticas específicas de los informes de carbono, la práctica real de cómo las organizaciones contabilizan e informan las emisiones sigue siendo poco estudiada.[42]​[43]​ Los estudios de prácticas de contabilidad e informes de carbono apuntan a externalidades sistémicas y plantean problemas sobre la responsabilidad.[44]​.

Double counting

When two or more people or organizations claim ownership of specific emissions reductions or carbon offsets.[45]​ Double counting occurs when the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions resulting from a particular activity are allocated to multiple parties in a supply chain, such that the total emissions allocated exceed the actual total emissions of that activity.[46]​ For investors and according to cross-asset footprint calculations, double counting can reach around 30-40% of the issues in an institutional investor's portfolio.[47]​.

Data quality

A 2004 study of corporate disclosure of greenhouse gas emissions found that only 15 percent of companies that disclose GHG emissions report them in a way that the authors consider complete with respect to the scope of emissions, the type of emissions, and the reporting threshold.[48]​.