Modernism Architecture or Art Nouveau Architecture* is a trend in architecture that developed in the years 1890-1925, but its main development began around 1905. Art Nouveau ("new art") was the result of the quest to free the form of the building from the pure imitation of ancient times (historicism) and to create a new style.
The first approaches to the architecture of the century pointed to a rupturist interpretation where what happened from those years to the end of the century was seen as a radical turn and without return with respect to previous Architecture. Thus emerges the idea of a modern movement in Architecture that involves starting from scratch.
A historical vision was necessary that emphasized the most innovative values of recent works linked to an interpretation committed to a political and social commitment. They wanted to distance this Architecture from any link with previous traditions.
When the pioneers of modern architecture rejected the “forms of the past,” they were not only referring to some specific motifs, but also to spatial conceptions in general, such as the linear perspective of the Renaissance or the totalitarian layouts of the Baroque. In particular, they opposed the “academic” compositions of the official architecture of the 19th century, in which the significant centers and axes of Baroque urbanism had degenerated into a game with formalist figures. Obviously, these artificial and static layouts could not cope with the way of life of an open and dynamic world, which sought to evade reality through a more beautiful and expressive world where they could take refuge. Last but not least, they rejected these “styles” as systems of building types and symbolic elements. It was through styles that the spatial conceptions of the past were made a reality.
The main trends in modern architecture
The new general situation created by the industrial and social revolution generated a multiplicity of new building issues. In the 19th century, the church and the palace lost their importance as main themes and were replaced, in turn, by the monument, the museum, the dwelling, the theater, the exhibition palace, and the office building. Each of these themes, as well as their temporal succession, indicate the emergence of a new way of life, based on new existential meanings.
Art Nouveau style
Introduction
Modernism Architecture or Art Nouveau Architecture* is a trend in architecture that developed in the years 1890-1925, but its main development began around 1905. Art Nouveau ("new art") was the result of the quest to free the form of the building from the pure imitation of ancient times (historicism) and to create a new style.
The first approaches to the architecture of the century pointed to a rupturist interpretation where what happened from those years to the end of the century was seen as a radical turn and without return with respect to previous Architecture. Thus emerges the idea of a modern movement in Architecture that involves starting from scratch.
A historical vision was necessary that emphasized the most innovative values of recent works linked to an interpretation committed to a political and social commitment. They wanted to distance this Architecture from any link with previous traditions.
When the pioneers of modern architecture rejected the “forms of the past,” they were not only referring to some specific motifs, but also to spatial conceptions in general, such as the linear perspective of the Renaissance or the totalitarian layouts of the Baroque. In particular, they opposed the “academic” compositions of the official architecture of the 19th century, in which the significant centers and axes of Baroque urbanism had degenerated into a game with formalist figures. Obviously, these artificial and static layouts could not cope with the way of life of an open and dynamic world, which sought to evade reality through a more beautiful and expressive world where they could take refuge. Last but not least, they rejected these “styles” as systems of building types and symbolic elements. It was through styles that the spatial conceptions of the past were made a reality.
The main trends in modern architecture
The new general situation created by the industrial and social revolution generated a multiplicity of new building issues. In the 19th century, the church and the palace lost their importance as main themes and were replaced, in turn, by the monument, the museum, the dwelling, the theater, the exhibition palace, and the office building. Each of these themes, as well as their temporal succession, indicate the emergence of a new way of life, based on new existential meanings.
These new buildings represented the economic values of the new capitalist society, as well as its productive forces were clearly manifested in buildings intended for factories, offices and homes. Based on these advances, the demand for efficiency and economic profitability as an unavoidable priority, a decrease in patios in architecture is observed to optimize the economy.[2].
To refer to the architecture that emerged since the end of the century, the adjective “Modern” is used. In this case, it refers to the one built since Art Nouveau and the proposals until the 60s of the century. The architecture of the Modern Movement makes a decided commitment in favor of certain currents and trends largely related to the artistic avant-garde.
Therefore, it seems that the factors that differentiated industrial and artisanal production have disappeared, leaving the "pure artistic" value that only those in the know can appreciate as the fundamental value of the latter.
Naturally, the relative continuity with traditional systems does not exclude that the art of construction is transformed in this period and that new problems arise, such as, for example, the industrial revolution modifying the construction technique, even if it is less spectacular than in other sectors. Traditional materials, such as stone, bricks, wood, are worked more profitably, distributing them in a more practical way. Other new materials were added to these, such as cast iron, glass and, later, cement. The progress of science makes it possible to use all these materials in the most convenient way and measure their resistance. The dissemination of the scientific spirit and the aspiration of architects to verify the limits of use of traditional construction materials and systems stimulate various experimental investigations.
Scientific research works, on the other hand, in the technique of construction, modifying the instruments that must be used to design. The two main innovations originate in France in this case as well: the invention of descriptive geometry and the introduction of the decimal metric system.
Iron and glass have been used in construction since time immemorial, but only in this period did industry progress make it possible to extend their applications, introducing completely new concepts into construction technology.
At first, iron was used only as an accessory: for chains, braces and to join ashlars together in masonry constructions. For example, in the pronaos built by Rondelet for the Pantheon of Soufflot, in 1770, the real stability of the cornice is ensured by a dense network of metal bars, rationally placed according to the different loads, almost like the framework of a modern cement work. But the limited development of the steel industry puts an insurmountable limit on the diffusion of these systems. In England, decisive steps were taken, which at the end of the century allowed iron production to increase to the extent appropriate to the new demands.
The use of cast iron is widespread in construction. Cast iron columns and beams form the framework of many industrial buildings, and allow large spaces to be covered with relatively light and fire-proof structures. Grilles, railings, fences and decorations are increasingly used in ordinary works and even in representative works. The cast iron decorations in this first period - the last decades of the century and the beginning of the century - are frequently of magnificent workmanship and far superior to the commercial ones of the following period.
The glass industry made great technical progress in the second half of the century, and in 1806 it was capable of producing glass panels measuring 2.50 by 1.70 meters. In England, however, the largest producer, the fiscal demands during the Napoleonic wars put serious difficulties for the glass factories, and only after the peace treaty could production continue its development. More serious applications are beginning to be experimented with, associating glass with iron to obtain coatings that allow light to pass through. Large iron and glass skylights are used in many public buildings, for example in the Madeleine de Vignon. In 1829, Percier and Fontaine covered the Galerie d'Orléans of the Palais Royal with glass, the prototype of the public gallery of the 18th century. Rouhault used glass in the construction of large nurseries, in the Jardin des plantes in Paris, in 1833; Paxton, at Chatsworth, in 1837, and Burton, at Kew Gardens, in 1844.
The first railway stations required large glass covers, and the new stores, with their large display windows, accustomed architects to designing walls entirely of glass. Joseph Paxton's Crystal Palace, in 1851, summarizes all these experiences and inaugurates the series of large glass galleries for exhibitions, which continues in the second half of the century.
Modernist architecture in Belgium
Architectural modernism was born in Belgium (where it will be called art nouveau) with the work of Goh Ver Wayans") and Victor Horta. The undulation of the roofs and facades, the application of materials such as wrought iron, the motifs of natural vegetation and the careful design of the decoration and of each architectural and furniture element of the interior are characteristics of their works: by Van de Velde it is the Bloemenwerf house");[3] and by Horta the Solvay house (especially its characteristic interior with a very ornate design, with lamps, wallpaper, stained glass, etc.), the Tassel House, the People's House "People's House (Brussels)")[4] and the van Eetvelde House, all in Brussels, as well as the Grand Bazaar") in Frankfurt.
Modernist architecture in Austria
The Viennese movement called Sezession (1897) had Otto Wagner[5] and Josef María Olbrich as architects; and the parallel Munich movement (1892) to Franz von Stuck.
Modernist architecture in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, William Morris and Charles Rennie Mackintosh can be considered within architectural modernism. Morris's style does not fall into decorative excesses, it is the most sober of the movement, since it focuses more on the implantation of the villa in nature (influence of the English picturesqueism of the previous century) and the appreciation of functional interior space. Above all, he designs furniture and small everyday utensils, and is placed within the genre in line with the French architect Charles Voysey. Mackintosh's approaches are original and provide new solutions to his architectural problems. Prismatic and octagonal shapes are characteristic. He is the most sober modernist architect in exteriors, which makes him a precursor of architectural rationalism. He designs furniture and jewellery, and builds the Glasgow School of Art.
Modernist architecture in Spain
In Spain, modernist architecture, relatively little present in Madrid,[6] and with occasional development in other areas (Cartagena and La Unión, Comillas "Comillas (Cantabria)"), León "León (Spain)") and Astorga, Ávila,[7] Zamora,[8] Zaragoza, Teruel, Bajo Aragón, Ceuta,[9] some of the casas de indianos in the area Cantabrian,[10] Canary Islands or Mallorca);[11] it was in Barcelona where it had the greatest importance. The Catalan modernist architects (Elías Rogent, Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Josep Puig i Cadafalch, Enric Sagnier, Juan Rubió, Josep Maria Jujol, Salvador Valeri, Lluís Muncunill i Parellada, Víctor Beltrí) developed their own language, from which Antoni Gaudí started to develop his particular, very personal artistic universe.[12] The Valencian Community will be another modernist focus, which by number of works had its greatest development in Alcoy and Valencia and that with the help of the architects of Valencian modernism (Francisco Mora, Demetrio Ribes, Antonio Martorell, Vicente Ferrer, Vicente Pascual, Timoteo Briet, etc.) will give rise to its own style influenced by the Austrian modernist movement Sezession.[13][14] The city of Melilla,[15] is the second Spanish city with the most buildings modernist, thanks to extremely complicated ornamentations, with great figures such as Emilio Alzugaray Goicoechea or Enrique Nieto y Nieto, disciple of Domenech and Montaner, as demonstrated in works such as the House of David J. Melul.
Modernist architecture in Latvia
Riga is the European city with the largest number of art nouveau buildings, as a result of the urban growth that occurred after the demolition of the walls, and the training that a group of architects (Rudolf Heinrich Zirkwitz, Friedrich Scheffel"), Heinrich Scheel, Janis Alksnis") and Konstantin Peksens")[16]) received in the Architecture Class that was created (1869) at the Polytechnic Institute from Riga.[17].
Modernist architecture in South America
In South America, modernism did not have much development due to its high construction cost, the artisanal quality of its ornaments and the conservative taste of the upper classes. In Argentina there are some notable cases of the influence of modernism in all its currents, thanks to the immigration of architects from various European countries, especially in the city of Buenos Aires: within the Jugendstil current the Otto Wulff Building stands out with its zoological decoration and its atlantes "Atlante (column)") with hard features and the work of Oskar Ranzenhofer (Palacio Vera), within Catalan modernisme the works of Julián García stand out Núñez (like the Spanish Hospital"), now semi-demolished, and several apartment and office buildings such as Chacabuco 78) and by Eduardo Rodríguez Ortega (Casa de los Lirios). In Belgian art nouveau, the promoters were Edouard Le Monnier (with the distinctive silhouette of the Argentine Yacht Club), and Louis Dubois (the exotic dome of the Hotel Chile); and in the Italian floreale, Francesco Gianotti stood out with the General Gallery Güemes, the first skyscraper in Buenos Aires, and several apartment buildings, and Virginio Colombo dazzled with his ostentatious buildings and residences (Casa de los Pavos Reales, Palacio Carú).
Modernism is not a new art, but is in any case the final solution, the last episode, of the architecture of the century that enters and ends in a particularly accelerated way at the beginning of the 20th.[18][19][20].
In Chile there are not many examples either, although there are some very notable ones: One of the first examples of Art Nouveau in Chile was the Winter Garden of the Cousiño Palace, built in 1882 by the French architect Paul Lathoud. The Anwandter Schmidt Palace is an example of the German Jugendstil style in Chile, built in 1890.[21] One of the greatest examples in Chile is the Baburizza Palace, a villa built in 1916 by the architects Barison and Schiavon. It has elements of different European architectures harmoniously fused by Austrian Art Nouveau. Some buildings only included certain Art Nouveau elements in their facades and rooms, such as the Iñíguez Palace and the Larraín Mancheño Palace. Other notable examples are the Falabella Palace, in a neo-Renaissance style with art nouveau reminiscences; the Figueroa Echaíz Palace by architect Luciano Kulczewski and the Santiago Equestrian Club.
References
[1] ↑ Vgl. Hans Sandmayr: 100 Jahre Villa Maund, ein geschichtsträchtiges Haus im Bregenzerwald. Bezau 1997, S. 17 ff. Fuente citada en Villa Maund.
[2] ↑ Norberg-Schulz, Christian (1973). Arquitectura Occidental. Barcelona: Gustavo Guili. p. 175.
[5] ↑ Que también desarrolló una estética que se relaciona con el racionalismo arquitectónico: Archivo:Wien PSK.jpg: Wiener Postsparkasse («Caja Postal de Viena»). Otto Wagner Museum located within the Austrian Postal Savings Bank, Virtual tour through the building Archivado el 27 de septiembre de 2007 en Wayback Machine.. Fuentes citadas en Austrian Postal Savings Bank.: https://web.archive.org/web/20070227185129/http://www.ottowagner.com/ow-werk/index.html
[6] ↑ * Los estilos arquitectónicos que pasaron de puntillas por Madrid (artículo de Octavio Fraile a propósito de Madrid modernista, Óscar da Rocha Aranda y Ricardo Muñoz Fajardo, con declaraciones de estos autores y otros, como Francisco Herrera): El modernismo se dio muy poco aquí. Los ejemplos más característicos son la Filmoteca Nacional, de Críspulo Moro Cabeza (Cine Doré...) y el palacio de Longoria (sede de la SGAE), de José Grases... [el interior del] Círculo de Bellas Artes... la escalinata central del Casino de Madrid o el panteón de José Cámara en el cementerio de San Justo... En Carabanchel... la Colonia de la Prensa, una serie de viviendas unifamiliares de principios de siglo xx creadas para acoger a periodistas de clase media... El modernismo madrileño destaca por su sobriedad, que «se amolda al aspecto general de la ciudad».
[13] ↑ Mestre Martí, María (2007). La arquitectura del modernismo valenciano en relación con el Jugendstil vienés. 1898-1918. Paralelismos y conexiones. Valencia: Universitat Politècnica de València. p. 629. Consultado el 5 de marzo de 2018.: https://riunet.upv.es/handle/10251/1968
[16] ↑ Krastiņš, Jānis (2002) (in Latvian, English). Rīgas arhitektūras meistari 1850-1940: The masters of architecture of Riga 1850-1940.. Riga: Jumava. ISBN 9984054500. Fuente citada en Konstantīns Pēkšēns.
[18] ↑ Kabierske, Gerhard (1996). Der Architekt Hermann Billing (1867–1946). Leben und Werk. Materialien zu Bauforschung und Baugeschichte, 7. Karlsruhe: AME Publishing Company. Consultado el 30 de agosto de 2023.: https://dx.doi.org/10.21037/asj
[19] ↑ Billing, Hermann, ed. (1997). Hermann Billing: Architekt zwischen Historismus, Jugendstil und neuem Bauen; 22.3. - 25.5.1997, Städtische Galerie Karlsruhe im Prinz-Max-Palais. Städtische Galerie im Prinz-Max-Palais. ISBN 978-3-923344-38-3. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[20] ↑ Schäfer, Friedemann (2007). Stadtspaziergänge in Karlsruhe: Jugendstil. DRW-Verlag Weinbrenner. ISBN 978-3-7650-8360-0. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[23] ↑ Maurice Culot, Lise Grenier (dir.), Henri Sauvage 1873-1932, contributions de R. Delevoy, F. Loyer, B. B. Taylor, L. Miotto-Muret, J. Gübler, Bruxelles/Paris, AAM/SADG, 1976. Fuentes citadas en Henri Sauvage.
[24] ↑ Hankar et L'Hôtel Ciamberlani, Aparté Editions. Fuente citada en Hotel Ciamberlani.
These new buildings represented the economic values of the new capitalist society, as well as its productive forces were clearly manifested in buildings intended for factories, offices and homes. Based on these advances, the demand for efficiency and economic profitability as an unavoidable priority, a decrease in patios in architecture is observed to optimize the economy.[2].
To refer to the architecture that emerged since the end of the century, the adjective “Modern” is used. In this case, it refers to the one built since Art Nouveau and the proposals until the 60s of the century. The architecture of the Modern Movement makes a decided commitment in favor of certain currents and trends largely related to the artistic avant-garde.
Therefore, it seems that the factors that differentiated industrial and artisanal production have disappeared, leaving the "pure artistic" value that only those in the know can appreciate as the fundamental value of the latter.
Naturally, the relative continuity with traditional systems does not exclude that the art of construction is transformed in this period and that new problems arise, such as, for example, the industrial revolution modifying the construction technique, even if it is less spectacular than in other sectors. Traditional materials, such as stone, bricks, wood, are worked more profitably, distributing them in a more practical way. Other new materials were added to these, such as cast iron, glass and, later, cement. The progress of science makes it possible to use all these materials in the most convenient way and measure their resistance. The dissemination of the scientific spirit and the aspiration of architects to verify the limits of use of traditional construction materials and systems stimulate various experimental investigations.
Scientific research works, on the other hand, in the technique of construction, modifying the instruments that must be used to design. The two main innovations originate in France in this case as well: the invention of descriptive geometry and the introduction of the decimal metric system.
Iron and glass have been used in construction since time immemorial, but only in this period did industry progress make it possible to extend their applications, introducing completely new concepts into construction technology.
At first, iron was used only as an accessory: for chains, braces and to join ashlars together in masonry constructions. For example, in the pronaos built by Rondelet for the Pantheon of Soufflot, in 1770, the real stability of the cornice is ensured by a dense network of metal bars, rationally placed according to the different loads, almost like the framework of a modern cement work. But the limited development of the steel industry puts an insurmountable limit on the diffusion of these systems. In England, decisive steps were taken, which at the end of the century allowed iron production to increase to the extent appropriate to the new demands.
The use of cast iron is widespread in construction. Cast iron columns and beams form the framework of many industrial buildings, and allow large spaces to be covered with relatively light and fire-proof structures. Grilles, railings, fences and decorations are increasingly used in ordinary works and even in representative works. The cast iron decorations in this first period - the last decades of the century and the beginning of the century - are frequently of magnificent workmanship and far superior to the commercial ones of the following period.
The glass industry made great technical progress in the second half of the century, and in 1806 it was capable of producing glass panels measuring 2.50 by 1.70 meters. In England, however, the largest producer, the fiscal demands during the Napoleonic wars put serious difficulties for the glass factories, and only after the peace treaty could production continue its development. More serious applications are beginning to be experimented with, associating glass with iron to obtain coatings that allow light to pass through. Large iron and glass skylights are used in many public buildings, for example in the Madeleine de Vignon. In 1829, Percier and Fontaine covered the Galerie d'Orléans of the Palais Royal with glass, the prototype of the public gallery of the 18th century. Rouhault used glass in the construction of large nurseries, in the Jardin des plantes in Paris, in 1833; Paxton, at Chatsworth, in 1837, and Burton, at Kew Gardens, in 1844.
The first railway stations required large glass covers, and the new stores, with their large display windows, accustomed architects to designing walls entirely of glass. Joseph Paxton's Crystal Palace, in 1851, summarizes all these experiences and inaugurates the series of large glass galleries for exhibitions, which continues in the second half of the century.
Modernist architecture in Belgium
Architectural modernism was born in Belgium (where it will be called art nouveau) with the work of Goh Ver Wayans") and Victor Horta. The undulation of the roofs and facades, the application of materials such as wrought iron, the motifs of natural vegetation and the careful design of the decoration and of each architectural and furniture element of the interior are characteristics of their works: by Van de Velde it is the Bloemenwerf house");[3] and by Horta the Solvay house (especially its characteristic interior with a very ornate design, with lamps, wallpaper, stained glass, etc.), the Tassel House, the People's House "People's House (Brussels)")[4] and the van Eetvelde House, all in Brussels, as well as the Grand Bazaar") in Frankfurt.
Modernist architecture in Austria
The Viennese movement called Sezession (1897) had Otto Wagner[5] and Josef María Olbrich as architects; and the parallel Munich movement (1892) to Franz von Stuck.
Modernist architecture in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, William Morris and Charles Rennie Mackintosh can be considered within architectural modernism. Morris's style does not fall into decorative excesses, it is the most sober of the movement, since it focuses more on the implantation of the villa in nature (influence of the English picturesqueism of the previous century) and the appreciation of functional interior space. Above all, he designs furniture and small everyday utensils, and is placed within the genre in line with the French architect Charles Voysey. Mackintosh's approaches are original and provide new solutions to his architectural problems. Prismatic and octagonal shapes are characteristic. He is the most sober modernist architect in exteriors, which makes him a precursor of architectural rationalism. He designs furniture and jewellery, and builds the Glasgow School of Art.
Modernist architecture in Spain
In Spain, modernist architecture, relatively little present in Madrid,[6] and with occasional development in other areas (Cartagena and La Unión, Comillas "Comillas (Cantabria)"), León "León (Spain)") and Astorga, Ávila,[7] Zamora,[8] Zaragoza, Teruel, Bajo Aragón, Ceuta,[9] some of the casas de indianos in the area Cantabrian,[10] Canary Islands or Mallorca);[11] it was in Barcelona where it had the greatest importance. The Catalan modernist architects (Elías Rogent, Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Josep Puig i Cadafalch, Enric Sagnier, Juan Rubió, Josep Maria Jujol, Salvador Valeri, Lluís Muncunill i Parellada, Víctor Beltrí) developed their own language, from which Antoni Gaudí started to develop his particular, very personal artistic universe.[12] The Valencian Community will be another modernist focus, which by number of works had its greatest development in Alcoy and Valencia and that with the help of the architects of Valencian modernism (Francisco Mora, Demetrio Ribes, Antonio Martorell, Vicente Ferrer, Vicente Pascual, Timoteo Briet, etc.) will give rise to its own style influenced by the Austrian modernist movement Sezession.[13][14] The city of Melilla,[15] is the second Spanish city with the most buildings modernist, thanks to extremely complicated ornamentations, with great figures such as Emilio Alzugaray Goicoechea or Enrique Nieto y Nieto, disciple of Domenech and Montaner, as demonstrated in works such as the House of David J. Melul.
Modernist architecture in Latvia
Riga is the European city with the largest number of art nouveau buildings, as a result of the urban growth that occurred after the demolition of the walls, and the training that a group of architects (Rudolf Heinrich Zirkwitz, Friedrich Scheffel"), Heinrich Scheel, Janis Alksnis") and Konstantin Peksens")[16]) received in the Architecture Class that was created (1869) at the Polytechnic Institute from Riga.[17].
Modernist architecture in South America
In South America, modernism did not have much development due to its high construction cost, the artisanal quality of its ornaments and the conservative taste of the upper classes. In Argentina there are some notable cases of the influence of modernism in all its currents, thanks to the immigration of architects from various European countries, especially in the city of Buenos Aires: within the Jugendstil current the Otto Wulff Building stands out with its zoological decoration and its atlantes "Atlante (column)") with hard features and the work of Oskar Ranzenhofer (Palacio Vera), within Catalan modernisme the works of Julián García stand out Núñez (like the Spanish Hospital"), now semi-demolished, and several apartment and office buildings such as Chacabuco 78) and by Eduardo Rodríguez Ortega (Casa de los Lirios). In Belgian art nouveau, the promoters were Edouard Le Monnier (with the distinctive silhouette of the Argentine Yacht Club), and Louis Dubois (the exotic dome of the Hotel Chile); and in the Italian floreale, Francesco Gianotti stood out with the General Gallery Güemes, the first skyscraper in Buenos Aires, and several apartment buildings, and Virginio Colombo dazzled with his ostentatious buildings and residences (Casa de los Pavos Reales, Palacio Carú).
Modernism is not a new art, but is in any case the final solution, the last episode, of the architecture of the century that enters and ends in a particularly accelerated way at the beginning of the 20th.[18][19][20].
In Chile there are not many examples either, although there are some very notable ones: One of the first examples of Art Nouveau in Chile was the Winter Garden of the Cousiño Palace, built in 1882 by the French architect Paul Lathoud. The Anwandter Schmidt Palace is an example of the German Jugendstil style in Chile, built in 1890.[21] One of the greatest examples in Chile is the Baburizza Palace, a villa built in 1916 by the architects Barison and Schiavon. It has elements of different European architectures harmoniously fused by Austrian Art Nouveau. Some buildings only included certain Art Nouveau elements in their facades and rooms, such as the Iñíguez Palace and the Larraín Mancheño Palace. Other notable examples are the Falabella Palace, in a neo-Renaissance style with art nouveau reminiscences; the Figueroa Echaíz Palace by architect Luciano Kulczewski and the Santiago Equestrian Club.
References
[1] ↑ Vgl. Hans Sandmayr: 100 Jahre Villa Maund, ein geschichtsträchtiges Haus im Bregenzerwald. Bezau 1997, S. 17 ff. Fuente citada en Villa Maund.
[2] ↑ Norberg-Schulz, Christian (1973). Arquitectura Occidental. Barcelona: Gustavo Guili. p. 175.
[5] ↑ Que también desarrolló una estética que se relaciona con el racionalismo arquitectónico: Archivo:Wien PSK.jpg: Wiener Postsparkasse («Caja Postal de Viena»). Otto Wagner Museum located within the Austrian Postal Savings Bank, Virtual tour through the building Archivado el 27 de septiembre de 2007 en Wayback Machine.. Fuentes citadas en Austrian Postal Savings Bank.: https://web.archive.org/web/20070227185129/http://www.ottowagner.com/ow-werk/index.html
[6] ↑ * Los estilos arquitectónicos que pasaron de puntillas por Madrid (artículo de Octavio Fraile a propósito de Madrid modernista, Óscar da Rocha Aranda y Ricardo Muñoz Fajardo, con declaraciones de estos autores y otros, como Francisco Herrera): El modernismo se dio muy poco aquí. Los ejemplos más característicos son la Filmoteca Nacional, de Críspulo Moro Cabeza (Cine Doré...) y el palacio de Longoria (sede de la SGAE), de José Grases... [el interior del] Círculo de Bellas Artes... la escalinata central del Casino de Madrid o el panteón de José Cámara en el cementerio de San Justo... En Carabanchel... la Colonia de la Prensa, una serie de viviendas unifamiliares de principios de siglo xx creadas para acoger a periodistas de clase media... El modernismo madrileño destaca por su sobriedad, que «se amolda al aspecto general de la ciudad».
[13] ↑ Mestre Martí, María (2007). La arquitectura del modernismo valenciano en relación con el Jugendstil vienés. 1898-1918. Paralelismos y conexiones. Valencia: Universitat Politècnica de València. p. 629. Consultado el 5 de marzo de 2018.: https://riunet.upv.es/handle/10251/1968
[16] ↑ Krastiņš, Jānis (2002) (in Latvian, English). Rīgas arhitektūras meistari 1850-1940: The masters of architecture of Riga 1850-1940.. Riga: Jumava. ISBN 9984054500. Fuente citada en Konstantīns Pēkšēns.
[18] ↑ Kabierske, Gerhard (1996). Der Architekt Hermann Billing (1867–1946). Leben und Werk. Materialien zu Bauforschung und Baugeschichte, 7. Karlsruhe: AME Publishing Company. Consultado el 30 de agosto de 2023.: https://dx.doi.org/10.21037/asj
[19] ↑ Billing, Hermann, ed. (1997). Hermann Billing: Architekt zwischen Historismus, Jugendstil und neuem Bauen; 22.3. - 25.5.1997, Städtische Galerie Karlsruhe im Prinz-Max-Palais. Städtische Galerie im Prinz-Max-Palais. ISBN 978-3-923344-38-3. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[20] ↑ Schäfer, Friedemann (2007). Stadtspaziergänge in Karlsruhe: Jugendstil. DRW-Verlag Weinbrenner. ISBN 978-3-7650-8360-0. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[23] ↑ Maurice Culot, Lise Grenier (dir.), Henri Sauvage 1873-1932, contributions de R. Delevoy, F. Loyer, B. B. Taylor, L. Miotto-Muret, J. Gübler, Bruxelles/Paris, AAM/SADG, 1976. Fuentes citadas en Henri Sauvage.
[24] ↑ Hankar et L'Hôtel Ciamberlani, Aparté Editions. Fuente citada en Hotel Ciamberlani.