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Adaptive urban infrastructure

Introduction

Adaptation to climate change is the response to global warming that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to the effects of climate change.[1] This can be planned as part of public policies, either in reaction to or anticipation of climate change, or spontaneous, that is, without government intervention.[2] Planned adaptation is already occurring to a limited extent.[3] The barriers, limits and costs of future adaptation are not fully understood.[3] Adaptation to climate change will likely cost billions of dollars annually for the next few decades, although the actual amount of money needed is unknown.[4].

A concept related to adaptation is climate change mitigation,[5] which involves reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increasing the removal of these gases from the atmosphere (through carbon sinks).[6] However, even the most effective reductions in emissions do not prevent further impacts of climate change, so the need for adaptation is inevitable.[7] Even if emissions stabilize relatively soon, climate change and its effects will last for many years, and adaptation will be equally necessary.[8] If global warming is not mitigated then, in the long term, it will likely exceed the adaptive capacity of human systems, natural and managed.[7][9] For human systems, the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high.[7].

Another concept related to adaptation is "adaptive capacity", which is the ability of a system (human, natural or managed) to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes), moderate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities or cope with the consequences. °F).[11].

Adaptation to climate change is especially important in developing countries as they are expected to be the most affected by the effects of climate change.[12] Adaptive capacity is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, is closely related to social and economic development,[13] and developing countries generally have less adaptive capacity.[14].

Donor countries pledged an annual $100 million in 2020 through the Green Climate Fund to help developing countries adapt to climate change. However, while the fund was created during COP16, concrete commitments from developed countries have not been imminent.[15][16][17] Environmental organizations and public figures have emphasized changes in climate and the dangers they entail, in addition to encouraging the adaptation of infrastructure and the reduction of emissions.[18].

Adaptive urban infrastructure

Introduction

The need for adaptation

Contenido

En el 8 de febrero de 2007 el problema de la Naturaleza, un equipo de expertos en políticas de ciencia sostienen que la adaptación al cambio climático sería un medio más eficaz de lidiar con el calentamiento global que reduciendo las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero.[19].

National Academy of Sciences

An important attempt to address adaptation was a 1991 report by the United States National Academy of Sciences, "National Academy of Sciences (United States)", "Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming." The National Academy report warned that agricultural adaptation will be essential in a greenhouse world.[20].

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) recognizes climate change adaptation as part of the disaster risk reduction domain, as it intends to reduce the risks that vulnerable populations may encounter due to climate change.[21].

IPCC Working Group II

IPCC Working Group II maintains that mitigation and adaptation must be complementary components of a strategy that responds to global warming. Their report makes the following observations:.

• - Adaptation is a necessary strategy at all levels as a complement to climate change mitigation efforts.

• - People with fewer resources have less capacity to adapt and are the most vulnerable.

• - Adaptation, sustainable development and improving equity can be mutually reinforcing.[22].

Adaptation is a necessary strategy

Due to the current and projected climate disruption precipitated by high levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in industrialized countries, adaptation is a necessary strategy at all levels as a complement to climate change mitigation efforts, because we cannot be sure that all climate change can be mitigated. And in fact the odds are quite high that in the long term further warming is inevitable, given the high level of GHGs in the atmosphere, and the lag (several decades) between emissions and impact.

Adaptation has the potential to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and enhance beneficial impacts, but it will incur costs and will not prevent all harm. Extremes, variability, and rates of change are key characteristics for addressing vulnerability and adaptation to climate change, not just changes in average climate conditions.[23].

Human and natural systems will be to some extent autonomous in adapting to climate change.[23] Planned adaptation can complement autonomous adaptation, although there are more options and a greater possibility of offering incentives in the case of adaptation of human systems than in the case of adaptation to protect natural systems.[24].

disadvantaged nations

The ability of human systems to adapt and cope with climate change depends on factors such as wealth, technology, education, infrastructure, access to resources, management capabilities, acceptance of the existence of climate change and the consequent need for action, and socio-political will. Populations and communities are highly variable in their endowments of these attributes, with developing nations being among the worst placed to adapt to global warming.

Mutual reinforcement

Many communities and regions vulnerable to climate change are also under pressure due to factors such as population growth, resource depletion, and poverty. Policies to decrease pressures on resources, improve environmental risk management, and increase the well-being of the poorest members of society can simultaneously advance sustainable development and equity, improve adaptive capacity, and reduce vulnerability to climate and other stressors. The inclusion of climate risks in the design and implementation of national and international development initiatives, such as polar cities, can promote equity and development, which is more sustainable and reduces vulnerability to climate change.[25].

Mitigation

Yohe et al. (2007) evaluated the literature on sustainability and climate change.[26] With great confidence, they suggested that by 2050, an effort to limit greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to 550 ppm would benefit developing countries significantly. This was judged to be especially the case, when combined with improved adaptation. In 2100, however, it was still judged as unlikely to make the impacts of climate change significant. The case was considered even with aggressive mitigation and significantly improved adaptive capacity.

Compensation and economics

Adaptation and mitigation can be seen as two competing policy responses, with trade-offs between the two. The other offset is the impacts of climate change. In practice, however, the actual advantages and disadvantages are debatable (Schneider et al., 2001).[27] This is because people who bear the costs of emissions reductions or benefits are often different from those who pay or benefit from adaptation measures.

Economists, using cost-benefit analysis, have attempted to calculate an "optimal" balance of costs and benefits between the impacts of climate change, adaptation and mitigation (Toth et al., 2001).[28] There are difficulties in making this calculation, for example, the future damages of climate change are uncertain, as are the future costs of adaptation.

Likewise, deciding what is "optimal" depends on value judgments made by the economist to do the study (Azar, 1998).[29] For example, how to value impacts that occur in different regions and different times, and "non-market" impacts, for example, damage to ecosystems (Smith et al., 2001).[30] Economics cannot give definitive answers to these questions about valuation, and some valuations can. be seen as controversial (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 87, 99).[31].

Some comments indicate that policymakers are not comfortable using the results of this type of economic analysis (Klein et al., 2007).[32] This is due to the uncertainty surrounding cost estimates of climate change damages, adaptation and mitigation. Another type of analysis is based on a risk-based approach to the problem. Stern (2007) (named by Klein et al., 2007), for example, uses such an approach. He argued that adaptation could play an important role in climate policy, but not in an explicit trade-off against mitigation.

UNFCCC

In the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), where the majority of countries are Parties (UNFCCC, n.d.),[33] have committed to helping the most vulnerable adapt to climate change (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 98).[31] The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), created within the framework of the Kyoto Protocol of the Framework Convention, is the main source of income for the UNFCCC Adaptation Fund. This fund was established in 2007 (World Bank, 2010, pp. 262-263).[34] The CDM is subject to a 2% tax, which could increase between 300 million and $600 million in the period 2008-2012. The actual amount raised will depend on the carbon price.

Although created under the Kyoto Protocol, the Adaptation Fund has been very slow to become operational and has not yet (August 2010) disbursed any funds. The call for proposals was published in April 2010.[35].

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

In February 2009, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (UK) issued a report in which they expressed pessimism about the ability of any international agreement such as the Kyoto Treaty to reduce carbon emissions. While they did not rule out mitigation policy altogether, they stated that they are "realistic enough to recognize that global CO2 emissions are not reducing and our climate is changing; unless we adapt, we will have to face a difficult."[36][37].

Conceptualizing adaptation

Adaptation can be defined as adjustments to a system to reduce the vulnerability and increase the resilience of systems to changes, in this case in the climate system.[38] Adaptation occurs at a range of inter-linked scales, and can occur either in anticipation of change (anticipatory adaptation), or be a response to those changes (reactive adaptation).[39] Most adaptation is currently being implemented in response to current climate trends and variability, for example, greater use of the creation of artificial snow in the European Alps. Some adaptation measures, however, are anticipating future climate change, such as building the Confederation Bridge in Canada at a higher elevation to account for the effect of future sea level rise on ship clearance under the bridge.[38].

Adaptive capacity and vulnerability are important concepts for understanding adaptation; Vulnerability can be seen as the context in which adaptation takes place, and adaptive capacity is the capacity or potential of a system to respond successfully to climate variability and change, in order to reduce negative effects and take advantage of new opportunities. Societies that can respond to change quickly and successfully have high adaptive capacity. High adaptive capacity does not necessarily translate into successful adaptation. For example, adaptive capacity in Western Europe is high, and the risks of warmer winters increasing the range of livestock diseases was well documented, but many parts of Europe were being severely affected by outbreaks of bluetongue virus in livestock in 2007.

Adaptive capacity is driven by factors that operate at different interrelated scales, and it is important to understand the ways in which different adaptive capacity drivers interact. Physical limitations are important, but in most cases, it is social processes that increase or decrease the ability to adapt; It can be said that adaptive capacity is a social construction.[40] The social factors of adaptive capacity are very varied, but can include broad structures such as economic and political processes, as well as processes that operate at a very local scale, such as access to decision-making and the structure of social networks and relationships within a community. The capacity to adapt at a local scale is limited by larger scale processes. For example, the adaptive capacity of farmers will not only depend on access to resources (physical and social) within the community that allow a crop to be successfully grown, but also the effect of macro-scale economic processes on the price received for the crop.[39] Gender "Gender (social sciences)") is another factor that is important in determining limited adaptive capacity and vulnerability,[41] for example, women may have participation in decision-making, or be limited by the lower levels of education.[38].

The social construction of adaptive capacity is very important when thinking about the risks and impacts of a changing climate. It is not only the change in climate that will affect vulnerability and livelihoods, but the way in which these changes are negotiated through complex social systems. A 10% decrease in rainfall (Precipitation (meteorology)) may be acceptable and manageable to members of a community who do not have access to improved agricultural techniques, or whose livelihoods are somehow diversified, while marginalized members of the community may not be able to cope with these changes.[39] Adaptation can be seen as a social and institutional process that involves reflecting on and responding to current trends and anticipated changes in the environment. climate.[42].

Both temporal and spatial scales are very important in reflecting on adaptation, as is the necessary frame of reference to study adaptation. Much effort will be made regarding short-term climate variability, however, this may cause poor adaptation to long-term climate trends. For example, Egypt's expansion of irrigation into the western Sinai Desert due to a period of increased river flow is a maladaptation when viewed in relation to longer-term projections of drying in the region.[43] Adaptations at one scale can also create externalities at another by reducing the adaptive capacity of other actors. This is often the case when broad assessments of the costs and benefits of adaptation are examined at smaller scales and it is possible to see that, while adaptation may benefit some actors, it has a negative effect on others.[39].

From the current literature on the topic, people have always adapted to a changing climate and coping strategies already exist in many communities, for example changing planting dates or adopting new water-saving techniques.[43] Traditional knowledge and coping strategies must be maintained and strengthened, otherwise adaptive capacity may weaken as local knowledge of the environment is lost. Strengthening these indigenous techniques and building on them also makes it more likely that adaptation strategies will be adopted, as it creates more community ownership and participation in the process.[38] In some cases, however this will not be enough to adapt to new conditions that are outside the range of those already experienced, and new techniques will be necessary.[40].

Costs

The United Nations Development Program estimates that an additional $86 billion per year would be needed in 2015.[45].

According to the UNFCCC it is estimated that in 2007, the costs of adaptation to climate change would cost $49-171 billion per year globally by 2030,[46] of which a significant portion of investment and financial flows, $27-66 billion would be needed in 2030 in non-Annex I Parties.[47] This represents double the ongoing official development assistance (ODA).

This estimate has been criticized by Parry et al. (2009), in a study conducted jointly by IIED and the Grantham Institute, which argues that the UNFCCC estimate underestimates the cost of adaptation to climate change by a factor of 2 or 3.[48] On the other hand, sectors such as tourism, mining, energy, and retail were not included in the UNFCCC estimate.

The World Bank's most recent study on the 'Economics of Climate Change Adaptation' found that the costs of adaptation would be in the range of $75-100 million per year between 2010 and 2050; with higher estimates under the wetter global scenario than the drier scenario, assuming that warming will be about 2 degrees by 2050.[49].

The benefits of forceful, early action in mitigation considerably outweigh the costs.[50] The Copenhagen Accord was agreed in order to create a commitment by developed countries to provide:[51].

However, a key point of contention between states at the Copenhagen Climate Summit at the UNFCCC was who was going to foot the bill and if aid should be given, how does development aid affect other levels?[51] The concept of additionality has emerged and therefore the EU (European Union) has asked its Member States to come up with definitions of what they understand about the meaning of additionality, the four main definitions being:[51].

- Climate financing qualified as aid, but additional to (above) the '0.7%' objective of the MDGs;.

- The previous year's increase in Official Development Assistance (ODM) dedicated to climate change mitigation;

- Increasing MDG levels that include climate change, but finances are limited to a certain percentage; and increased climate finance is not connected to the MDG.

The main point is that there is a conflict between budget deficit cuts in OECD states, the need to help developing countries adapt to sustainable development and the need to ensure that funding does not come to cut support for other important Millennium Development Goals.[51].

Adaptation methods

Adaptation through local planning

Local land use and municipal planning represent important avenues for adaptation to global warming. These forms of planning are recognized as fundamental to avoid the effects of climate-related hazards, such as flooding and heat stress "Thermal (environmental) stress"), planning for demographic transition and consumption, and plans for ecosystem conservation.[53] This type of planning is different from national adaptation programs (NAPs), which are to be the frameworks for prioritizing adaptation needs.[54] At a local scale, municipalities are at the front line of adaptation carbon where Impacts are experienced in the forms of floods, forest fires, heat waves and sea level rise.[55].

Cities are planning to adapt to global warming and climate change. The New York Times began a series of articles on this topic highlighting Chicago's adaptation efforts.[56] Projects include switching from warming tolerant tree varieties, watering permeable pavements to absorb higher rainfall, and adding air conditioning in public schools. New York and other cities are engaged in similar planning.[57][58][59] Carefully planned water storage could help urban areas adapt to increasingly severe storms by increasing stormwater storage (household water butts, unpaved gardens, etc.) and increasing the capacity of stormwater systems (and also separating stormwater from sewage, so that when overflow in high seasons does not pollute the rivers). According to Nature English"), gardeners can help mitigate the effects of climate change by providing habitats for the most threatened species, and/or saving water by changing gardens to use plants that require less.[60].

Adaptation through local planning occurs in two different ways. The first is strategic planning, which is important, but is not exclusive to local governments. At the local level, the community vision, aspirational goals and place of decision-making are promoted, along with the definition of the paths to achieve these objectives. The second form is land use planning, and focuses on the allocation of space to balance economic prosperity "Prosperity (economy)") with acceptable standards of living and the conservation of natural resources. Although these two types of planning are very different in practice, and in many cases are managed by different departments, it is proposed that both are very important for adaptation to climate change, and can contribute to achieving adaptation at a local scale.[61] Important constraints are recognized to hinder adaptation through planning, including limited resources, lack of information, competing planning agendas and meeting the requirements of other levels of government.[62] Examples of adaptation include defending against sea level rise. through improved flood defenses, and changes in land use patterns such as avoiding the most vulnerable areas of housing.

Planning for sea level rise is one of the key challenges for local planning in response to climate change. Many national governments around the world have sought to address the problem of sea level rise through policy and planning reforms aimed at increasing adaptive capacity.[63] In the United States, many state and local governments are evaluating innovative and locality-specific options for adapting to sea level rise.[64][65] Although adaptation planning occurs through a variety of processes, local adaptation initiatives in the US often go through three stages of adaptation planning. the adaptation:[66].

• - Community knowledge of sea level rise construction as a local risk.

• - Carrying out a scientific evaluation of these risks in the medium and long term.

• - The use of a public process to develop an adaptation plan and supporting policies.

Improve adaptive capacity

In an evaluation of the literature, Smit et al. (2001) concluded that improved adaptive capacity would reduce vulnerability to climate change.[67] In their view, activities that improve adaptive capacity are essentially equivalent to activities that promote sustainable development. These activities include:[68].

• - Improve access to resources.

• - Poverty reduction.

• - Reducing resource and wealth inequalities between groups.

• - Improve education and information.

• - Improve infrastructure.

• - Improve institutional capacity and efficiency.

• - Promote local indigenous practices, knowledge and experiences.

Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute found that development interventions to increase adaptive capacity have tended not to result in greater agency for local people.[69] They argue that this should play a more prominent role in future intervention planning because agency is a central factor in all other aspects of adaptive capacity.

agricultural production

A major effect of global climate change is the alteration of global precipitation patterns, with certain effects on agriculture.[70] Seasonal agriculture constitutes 80% of global agriculture. Many of the world's 852 million poor people live in areas of Asia and Africa that depend on rain to grow and harvest food. As the world's population swells, more food will be needed, but climate variability is likely to make successful agriculture more difficult. Prolonged drought can cause the failure of small and marginal farms, generating economic, political and social problems. However, these types of events have occurred previously in human history independent of global climate change. In recent decades, global trade has created distribution networks capable of transporting surplus food to where it is most needed, thus reducing the local impact.[70].

Drought-tolerant crop varieties

Any type of agriculture is strongly influenced by the availability of water. Climate change will modify precipitation "Precipitation (meteorology)"), evaporation, circulation and storage of soil moisture. Changes in seasonal precipitation totals or in their pattern of variability are important. The occurrence of moisture stress during flowering, pollination and grain filling is detrimental to most crops and particularly corn, soybeans and wheat. Increased soil evaporation and plant transpiration will cause accelerated water stress. As a result, there will be a need to develop crop varieties with greater drought tolerance.

More spending on irrigation

Demand for water for irrigation is expected to increase in a warmer climate, bringing increased competition between agriculture, which is already the largest consumer of water resources in semi-arid regions, and urban, as well as industrial users. Falling water tables and the resulting increase in the energy needed to pump water will make the irrigation practice more expensive, particularly when drier conditions will require more water per hectare. Other strategies will be needed to make the use of water resources more efficient. For example, the International Water Management Institute has suggested five strategies that could help Asia feed its growing population in the face of climate change. These are:

• - Modernization of existing irrigation systems to adapt to modern cultivation methods.

• - Support farmers' efforts to find their own water supplies, exploring groundwater sustainably.

• - Look beyond conventional "Participatory Irrigation Management" schemes, through the participation of the private sector.

• - Expansion of capacity and knowledge.

• - Investment outside the irrigation sector.[71].

forest resources

They are the most important means of adaptation for forest-dependent people whose lives have depended on it. If the long duration of the drought persists, it will certainly affect the rain-fed agricultural system. In this situation, people can collect the edible fruits, roots (botanical) and leaves for their survival. Similarly, forest resources provide not only goods but also services such as regulating ecosystems, maintaining upstream-downstream linkages through watershed conservation, carbon sequestration and aesthetic value. These services become a fundamental part of sustained life by increasing the adaptive capacity of the poor and vulnerable, women and socially excluded communities.

Rainwater storage

Providing farmers with access to a wide range of store water could help them overcome periods of drought that would otherwise cause their crops to fail. Field studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of small-scale water storage. For example, according to the International Water Management Institute, using small water-planted 'harvest' basins in Zimbabwe has been shown to increase maize yields whether rainfall is abundant or scarce. And in Niger, they have resulted in a three- or four-fold increase in millet yields.[72].

Time control

Russian and American scientists in the past have tried to control the climate, for example by seeding clouds with chemicals to try to produce rain when and where it is needed. A new method being developed involves replicating the urban heat island effect, where cities are slightly hotter than the countryside as they are darker and absorb more heat. This creates 28% more rainfall 20 to 40 miles downwind of cities compared to the wind.[73] On the time scale of several decades, new weather monitoring techniques may become viable as they would allow control of extreme weather conditions such as hurricanes.[74].

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) through its Commission for Atmospheric Sciences (CEC) has issued a "DECLARATION ON WEATHER MODIFICATION", as well as "GUIDELINES FOR PLANNING ACTIVITIES in climate modification" in 2007, indicating among others that "For the purpose of increasing precipitation (meteorology), reducing hail damage, fog dispersion and other types of clouds and storm modifications, cloud seeding technologies are being developed that are still struggling to achieve a solid scientific basis and that have to adapt greatly to varied natural conditions."[75].

Glacial lake damming

Snowmelt flooding may become a major concern as glaciers shrink, leaving behind numerous lakes that are often impounded by a terminal of weak moraine dams. In the past, the sudden failure of these dams has resulted in localized property damage, injuries and deaths. Glacial lakes in danger of bursting may have their moraines replaced with concrete dams (which can also provide hydroelectric power).[76].

Geoengineering

In an evaluation of the literature, Barker et al. (2007) described geoengineering as a type of mitigation policy.[77] IPCC (2007) concluded that geoengineering options, such as ocean fertilization to remove CO2 from the atmosphere, remained largely untested.[78] Reliable cost estimates for geoengineering were considered unpublished.

The Royal Society (2009) published the results of a study on geoengineering. The authors of the study defined geoengineering as a "deliberate, large-scale intervention in the Earth's climate system, with the aim of moderating global warming" (p. ix). According to the study, the safest and most predictable method of moderating climate change is early action to reduce GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions.

Scientists such as Ken Caldeira and Paul Crutzen[80] suggest geoengineering techniques, which can be used to deliberately change the climate and thus control some of the effects of global warming. These include:

• - The management of solar radiation can be seen as an adaptation to global warming. Techniques such as space shading, the creation of stratospheric sulfur aerosols, roof paint, and white paving materials fall into this category.[80]

• - Hydrological Geoengineering - typically seeks to preserve sea ice or adjust thermohaline circulation using methods such as diverting rivers to keep warm water away from sea ice, icebergs, or immobilization to prevent them from becoming part of warmer and melting waters. This can be seen as an adaptation technique, although preventing the release of methane in the Arctic may also have mitigation aspects.[80].

Helping disadvantaged countries

In 2000, there was a proposal made at the Sixth Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which called for the creation of an Adaptation Fund with $1 billion a year for developing countries, especially the least developed and small island states, to enable them to combat the consequences of climate change.

Many scientists, policy makers and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report have agreed that disadvantaged countries, especially in the global south, need more attention to the negative impacts of climate change. These regions are highly populated and people generally have lower adaptive capacity. A balance, however, between development and climate change mitigation and adaptation has to be found.

In the southern part of the world, national governments are primarily responsible for the formulation and execution of the adaptation plan, from the local to the national level. In this context, a contradictory situation exists. National governments assign a high priority to non-climate change policies and plans for development. Development agendas are driven by pre-existing problems, such as poverty, malnutrition, food insecurity,[81] the availability of drinking water, indebtedness, illiteracy, unemployment, local resource conflicts, less technological development, etc. Here, it is important to recognize that if the phenomenon of climate change is not properly understood and coping strategies such as mitigation and adaptation are not adopted in a timely manner, the impacts of climate change will exacerbate these pre-existing problems.

Therefore, there is a need to explore integration strategies between climate change plans and development plans in the south of the globe. This integration must include principles such as social justice and equity, the inclusion of the marginal population in decision-making, participation and the promotion of social cohesion of women. The inclusion of these principles will not only promote climate change mitigation and adaptation, but will also make development more distributive.

The Institute for Development Studies' collaborative research points to the links between adaptation and poverty to help develop a pro-poor adaptation agenda that can inform poverty reduction and climate resilience. Adaptation to climate change will be "ineffective and unfair if it fails to learn from and build on an understanding of the multidimensional and differentiated nature of poverty and vulnerability."[82] The poorest countries tend to be the most severely affected by climate change, yet they have reduced assets and capacities with which to adapt. This has led to more activities to integrate adaptation into development and poverty reduction programmes. The rise of adaptation as a development issue has been influenced by concerns around minimizing threats to progress on poverty reduction, particularly the MDGs, and by the injustice of impacts felt most difficult by those who have done the least to contribute to the problem, framing adaptation as an equity and a matter of right.[83].

Migration

Recent literature has also presented the concept of migration as a climate change survival mechanism. Climate change push factors are compared with economic or social pull factors: the role of climate change in migration is therefore not a linear cause and effect. Migration often requires potential migrants to have access to social and financial capital, such as support networks in their chosen destination, and funds to move. Often the last adaptive response households will take to environmental factors that threaten their livelihoods, and especially when they resorted to other coping mechanisms they have not been successful. Migration and Climate Change, a UNESCO publication, explores the dynamics of environmental migration and the role of migration as an adaptive response to climate change.[84].

Insurance

One method of adaptation to climate change is encouraging individual actions to mitigate, spread, or transfer the risk of damage. Specifically, one of the existing tools is insurance, whether for a general catastrophe or real floods. The idea is to allow reactive options to rebuild communities after the adverse impacts of extreme weather events.[85] Although it may be preferable to take a proactive approach to eliminate the cause of the risk, post-damage reactive compensation can be used as a last resort.[86] Access to reinsurance can be a way to increase the resilience of cities.[87] When there are failures in the private insurance market, the public sector creates residual market mechanisms (RMM) to encourage reducing individual risk by subsidizing premiums.[88] One study identified key equity issues for policy considerations:[89].

• - The transfer of risk to the public treasury does not reduce the overall risk.

• - Governments can spread the cost of losses over time rather than space.

• - Governments can force homeowners in low-risk areas to subsidize the insurance premiums of those in high-risk areas.

• - Cross-subsidizing is increasingly difficult for private sector insurers operating in a competitive market.

• - Governments can tax people to pay for tomorrow's disaster.

Government-subsidized insurance, such as the United States National Flood Insurance Program, is criticized for providing a perverse incentive to develop properties in hazardous areas, increasing overall risk.[90] This behavioral effect can be counteracted with appropriate land use policies that limit new construction where they are perceived and/or encourage the adoption of damage-resistant building codes to mitigate potential current or future climate risks.[91]

Adaptation measures by country

Numerosos países, entre ellos Australia, han celebrado consultas y han planeado o iniciado medidas de adaptación. El estado de California también ha publicado un documento titulado "2009 California Clima Adaptación Estrategia Discusión Proyecto" que resume la ciencia más conocida en los impactos del cambio climático en siete sectores específicos y ofrece recomendaciones sobre cómo manejarse contra esas amenazas.[98] Las comunidades más pobres también han recibido ayuda para la adaptación al clima en lugares como Bangladés.[99][100][101][102].

National Program of Action for Adaptation

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) helps least developed countries (LDCs) identify climate change adaptation needs by funding the development of the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAP). The NAPA is intended to provide LDCs with the opportunity to identify their "urgent and immediate needs" for climate change adaptation.[103] As part of the NAP process, LDC government ministries, usually with the assistance of development agencies, assess their countries' vulnerability to climate change and extreme weather events. They then develop a prioritized list of adaptation projects that will help the country address the adverse effects of climate change. LDCs that submit NAPs to the UNFCCC will be eligible for funding through the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDC Fund) for NAP projects. The LDC Fund was designed through the UNFCCC to specifically assist least developed countries as they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change.[104] To date, forty-five least developed countries have written and submitted NAPs to the UNFCCC, with Nepal being the last country to submit its NAPA in November 2010.[105] Three more countries (Angola, Myanmar and East Timor) are scheduled to complete their national programs. adaptation for the end of 2011.[106].

National adaptation plans

• - Adaptation to climate change in Jordan").

• - Bali Route Map").

• - Climate bond").

• - Climate change denial.

• - Climate Vulnerability Monitor").

• - Effects of climate change on human beings").

• - Collaboratory for Adaptation to Climate Change from University of Notre Dame.

• - Gary Tabor"), catalyst of large landscape conservation and wildlife corridors as an adaptive solution to global warming.

• - ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability

ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA").

• - Climate Leadership Group.

• - Resistance to climate change").

References

[1] ↑ «UNFCCC Glossary of Climate Change Acronyms» (en inglés). Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/glossary/items/3666.php
[2] ↑ Smit et al., Chapter 18: Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity Archivado el 17 de enero de 2012 en Wayback Machine., Section 18.2.3: Adaptation Types and Forms Archivado el 12 de diciembre de 2009 en Wayback Machine. (en inglés), en IPCC TAR WG2, 2001.: http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/641.htm
[3] ↑ a b IPCC, Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers Archivado el 9 de marzo de 2013 en Wayback Machine., Section 4: Adaptation and mitigation options Archivado el 1 de mayo de 2010 en Wayback Machine. (en inglés), en IPCC AR4 SYR, 2007.: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spm.html
[4] ↑ «Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability».: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/climate-change-2022-impacts-adaptation-and-vulnerability/161F238F406D530891AAAE1FC76651BD
[5] ↑ Verbruggen, A. (ed.) (3 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. Glossary J-P. In (book section): Annex I. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz et al. (eds.)) (en inglés). ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. Archivado desde el original el 3 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100503041746/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/annex1sglossary-j-p.html
[6] ↑ "UNFCCC Glossary of Climate Change Acronyms". Visitada el 24 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/glossary/items/3666.php
[7] ↑ a b c Klein; R.J.T. (21 de abril de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. Executive summary. In (book chapter): Inter-relationships between adaptation and mitigation. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry et al. Eds.) (en inglés). ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. Archivado desde el original el 21 de abril de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100421032759/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch18s18-es.html
[8] ↑ Farber, Daniel A (2007). «Adapting to Climate Change: Who Should Pay» (en inglés). Falta la |url= (ayuda); |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda) 23 FLA. ST. U. J. LAND USE & ENVTL. L. 1, 8.
[9] ↑ «Synthesis report». Sec 6.3 Responses to climate change: Robust findings (en inglés). , en IPCC AR4 SYR, 2007.: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains6-3.html
[10] ↑ «Appendix I. Glossary». Adaptive capacity (en inglés). , en IPCC AR4 WG2, 2007.: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/annexessglossary-a-d.html
[11] ↑ Steven C. Sherwood; Matthew Huber (2010). Kerry A. Emanuel; Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Cambridge et al., eds. An adaptability limit to climate change due to heat stress (en inglés). 107 No.21. PNAS. pp. 9552-9555. doi:10.1073/pnas.0913352107. Consultado el 13 de octubre de 2014. Se sugiere usar |número-editores= (ayuda).: http://www.pnas.org/content/107/21/9552.full
[12] ↑ Cole, Daniel A (2008). «Climate Change, Adaptation, and Development» (en inglés). Falta la |url= (ayuda); |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda) 26 UCLA J. ENVTL. L. & POL’Y 1, 3.
[13] ↑ IPCC (2007). Print version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website, ed. 4. Adaptation and mitigation options. In (book section): Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)) (en inglés). ISBN 92-9169-122-4. Archivado desde el original el 1 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100501175206/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms4.html
[14] ↑ Schneider; S.H.; S. Semenov; A. Patwardhan; I. Burton; C.H.D. Magadza; M. Oppenheimer; A.B. Pittock; A. Rahman; J.B. Smith; A. Suarez; F. Yamin (2 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. This version: IPCC website, ed. Executive summary. In (book chapter): Chapter 19: Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds.) (en inglés). ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. Archivado desde el original el 2 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100502171249/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch19s19-es.html
[15] ↑ D+C Development and Cooperation.: http://www.dandc.eu/articles/220605/index.en.shtml
[16] ↑ a b c Benito Müller (2008). «International Adaptation Finance: The Need for an Innovative and Strategic Approach 4 (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Working Paper)» (PDF). Archivado desde el original el 29 de febrero de 2012. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120229175020/http://www.eed.de/fix/files/doc/2008_BMueller_int_adapatation_finance.pdf
[17] ↑ For example, how to value impacts occurring in different regions and different times, and "non-market" impacts, e.g., damages to ecosystems (Smith et al., 2001).
[18] ↑ «New Assessment of National, Regional Impacts of Climate Change» (en inglés). U.S. Global Change Research Program. 16 de junio de 2009. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2016.: http://www.globalchange.gov/news/new-assessment-national-regional-impacts-climate-change
[19] ↑ «Adaptation To Global Climate Change Is An Essential Response To A Warming Planet». 8 de febrero de 2007. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070207171745.htm
[20] ↑ Engineering, and Public Policy (U.S.) Panel on Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming Committee on Science (2 de marzo de 2007). National Academies Press, ed. Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming: Mitigation, Adaptation, and the Science Base. p. 944. ISBN 0-309-04386-7. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=1605
[21] ↑ UNISDR (ed.). «Themes and Issues in Disaster Risk Reduction». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.unisdr.org/files/23647_themesandissuesindisasterriskreduct.pdf
[22] ↑ Grida.no (ed.). «Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability». Archivado desde el original el 7 de enero de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100107193527/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/010.htm
[23] ↑ a b IPCC (febrero de 2007). «Adaptation is a Necessary Strategy at All Scales to Complement Climate Change Mitigation Efforts» (en inglés). Consultado el 13 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tar/wg2/index.php?idp=10
[24] ↑ grida.no (ed.). «Adaptation is a Necessary Strategy at All Scales to Complement Climate Change Mitigation Efforts». Climate Change 2001: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Archivado desde el original el 7 de enero de 2010.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100107193527/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/010.htm
[25] ↑ Grida.no (ed.). «Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability». Archivado desde el original el 7 de enero de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100107193527/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/010.htm#29
[26] ↑ Yohe, G.W. (2 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. Web version: IPCC website, ed. Executive summary. In (book chapter): Perspectives on climate change and sustainability. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry et al., (eds.)). ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. Archivado desde el original el 2 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100502173108/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch20s20-es.html
[27] ↑ Schneider, S. (2001). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. 1.4.4.2. Synergies and Tradeoffs between Adaptation and Mitigation. In (book chapter): Overview of Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability to Climate Change. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. Eds.). ISBN 0-521-80768-9. Archivado desde el original el 21 de octubre de 2014. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20141021012207/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/062.htm#1442
[28] ↑ Toth, F.L. (2001). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. 10.4.2.1 Economic Considerations. In (book chapter): Decision-making Frameworks. In: Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz et al. Eds.). ISBN 978-0-521-01502-8. Archivado desde el original el 7 de diciembre de 2013. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.grida.no/
[29] ↑ Azar, C. (1998). «Are Optimal CO2 Emissions Really Optimal? Four Critical Issues for Economists in the Greenhouse». Environmental and Resource Economics 11 (3–4): 301-315. doi:10.1023/A:1008235326513. Archivado desde el original el 16 de marzo de 2012. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120316140445/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/azar_1998_four_crucial_issues.pdf
[30] ↑ Smith, J.B. (24 de febrero de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. 19.5.1. Aggregate Analysis: An Assessment. In (book chapter): Vulnerability to Climate Change and Reasons for Concern: A Synthesis. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. Eds.). ISBN 0-521-80768-9. Archivado desde el original el 24 de febrero de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.grida.no/
[31] ↑ a b Banuri, T. (1996). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A., ed. Equity and Social Considerations. In: Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.P. Bruce et al. Eds.). ISBN 978-0-521-56854-8. doi:10.2277/0521568544.: https://dx.doi.org/10.2277%2F0521568544
[32] ↑ Klein, R.J.T. (2 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. 18.5 Inter-relationships in a climate policy portfolio. In (book chapter): Inter-relationships between adaptation and mitigation. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry et al. Eds.). ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. Archivado desde el original el 2 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100502170442/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch18s18-5.html
[33] ↑ UNFCCC (9 de mayo de 2010). UNFCCC website, ed. «Essential Background». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/items/2877.php
[34] ↑ World Bank (10 de abril de 2010). The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433, ed. World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-8213-7987-5. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7987-5. Archivado desde el original el 10 de abril de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100410171605/http://go.worldbank.org/BKLQ9DSDU0
[35] ↑ Adaptation Fund, ed. (27 de julio de 2010). «How to Apply». Archivado desde el original el 4 de marzo de 2011. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20110304211915/http://www.adaptation-fund.org/howtoapply
[36] ↑ Mukherjee, Sarah (13 de febrero de 2009). «CO2 reduction treaties useless». BBC News. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7888994.stm
[37] ↑ Institution of Mechanical Engineers (ed.). «2010 Releases». Archivado desde el original el 30 de noviembre de 2015. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014. 2010 Releases (roto desde octubre de 2010) (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://web.archive.org/web/http://www.imeche.org/media/press
[38] ↑ a b c d e «Assessment of adaptation practices, options, constraints and capacity» (PDF). 27 de agosto de 2010. Archivado desde el original el 27 de agosto de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100827182247/http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter17.pdf
[39] ↑ a b c d «Successful adaptation to climate change across scales» (PDF). doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.005. Archivado desde el original el 2 de abril de 2012. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120402025816/http://www.uea.ac.uk/env/people/adgerwn/Adgeretal2005GEC.pdf
[40] ↑ a b c «Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability» (PDF). doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.008. Archivado desde el original el 24 de junio de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100624132408/http://www.geog.psu.edu/pdf/Smit_Wandel_GEC.pdf
[41] ↑ Stockholm Environment Institute WikiADAPT, ed. (2 de julio de 2009). «Gender and Climate Change». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://wikiadapt.org/index.php?
[42] ↑ WikiADAPT, ed. (13 de diciembre de 2007). «Social learning». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://wikiadapt.org/index.php?
[43] ↑ a b Iied.org, ed. (16 de junio de 2010). «Adaptation to Climate Change in the Developing World». Archivado desde el original el 22 de septiembre de 2008. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20080922205501/http://www.iied.org/CC/documents/adapt_to_cc.pdf
[44] ↑ Titus, James. «Strategies for Adaptation to Global Warming». Archivado desde el original el 11 de mayo de 2012.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120511040912/http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/downloads/adapting_japa.pdf
[45] ↑ Página 26 "Human Development Report" agosto/2007 United Nations Development Programme.: http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_Summary_English.pdf
[46] ↑ Martin Parry; Nigel Arnell; Pam Berry; David Dodman; Samuel Fankhauser; Chris Hope; Sari Kovats; Robert Nicholls; David Satterthwaite; Richard Tiffin; Tim Wheeler. «3». En International Institute for Environment and Development (UK); Grantham Institute for Climate Change; Imperial College London (UK), eds. Assessing the costs of adaptation to climate change (A review of the UNFCCC and other recent estimates) (en inglés). pp. 40-50. ISBN 978-1-84369-745-9. Consultado el 13 de octubre de 2014.: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/11501IIED.pdf
[47] ↑ Punto 26 "INVESTMENT AND FINANCIAL FLOWS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE" UNFCCC.: http://unfccc.int/files/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/application/pdf/executive_summary.pdf
[48] ↑ ePrints Soton, ed. (27 de marzo de 2010). «Assessing the costs of adaptation to climate change: a review of the UNFCCC and other recent estimates». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/73760/
[49] ↑ World Bank (2010). «The Cost to Developing Countries of Adapting to Climate Change. New Methods and Estimates. Consultation Draft.». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTCC/Resources/EACC-june2010.pdf
[50] ↑ "Note from the UN Secretary General regarding the Summit on Climate Change" 22 de septiembre de 2009.: http://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/climatechange/shared/Documents/Background_Paper.pdf
[51] ↑ a b c d Jessica Brown, Neil Bird and Liane Schalatek (2010) Climate finance additionality: emerging definitions and their implications Archivado el 3 de agosto de 2012 en Wayback Machine. Overseas Development Institute.: http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4931&title=climate-finance-additionality-definitions-implications
[52] ↑ http://www.epa.gov/eims/global/clim_res.pdf.: http://www.epa.gov/eims/global/clim_res.pdf
[53] ↑ Tompkins EL, Adger WN (2004) Does adaptive management of natural resources enhance resilience to climate change? Ecology and Society 9(2):10 [online] http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art10/.: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art10/
[54] ↑ Tompkins EL (2005) Planning for climate change in small islands: Insights from national hurricane preparedness in the Cayman Islands: adaptation to climate change: perspectives across Scales. Glob Environ Change 15 (2):139-149.
[55] ↑ Preston, B.L., Brooke, C., Measham, T.G., Smith, T.F., Gorddard, R. (2009) Igniting change in local government: Lessons learned from a bushfire vulnerability assessment. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 14 (3) pp. 251-283 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-008-9163-4.: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-008-9163-4
[56] ↑ City Prepares for a Warm Long-Term Forecast New York Times May 22, 2011.: https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/science/earth/23adaptation.html?_r=1
[57] ↑ Koch, Wendy (15 de agosto de 2011). «Cities combat climate change». USA Today.: http://www.usatoday.com/NEWS/usaedition/2011-08-16-climatechange11-START_ST_U.htm
[58] ↑ Revkin, Andrew C. (23 de mayo de 2011). «Cities Embrace the Adaptation Imperative». The New York Times.: https://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/cities-embrace-the-adaptation-imperative/?ref=earth
[59] ↑ «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 2 de noviembre de 2013. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20131102144605/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=all-climate-is-local
[60] ↑ Jowit, Juliette (11 de junio de 2006). «Gardeners can slow climate change». The Guardian (London). Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,1795001,00.html
[61] ↑ Selman PH (1996) Local sustainability: managing and planning ecologically sound places. Paul Chapman Publishing, London.
[62] ↑ Measham T.G., Preston B.L., Smith T.F., Brooke C., Gorddard R. Withycombe G., and Morrison C. (2011) Adapting to climate change through local municipal planning: barriers and challenges, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-011-9301-2.: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-011-9301-2
[63] ↑ For a summary of selected government responses from a range of jurisdictions, see: Antarctic, Climate and Ecosystems CRC (2011), University of Tasmania – Hobart, Australia, «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 1 de marzo de 2015. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20150301051028/http://acecrc.org.au/access/repository/resource/86d7f302-1512-102f-a3d0-40404adc5e91
[64] ↑ For review of local sea level rise adaptation initiatives in the United States, see Lausche, Barbara, and Luke Maier. "Sea Level Rise Adaptation: Emerging Lessons for Local Policy Development." Mote Marine Laboratory. Technical Report No. 1723. https://www.academia.edu/5365821/Sea_Level_Rise_Adaptation_Emerging_Lessons_for_Local_Policy_Development.: https://www.academia.edu/5365821/Sea_Level_Rise_Adaptation_Emerging_Lessons_for_Local_Policy_Development
[65] ↑ For analysis of adaptation options for Connecticut, see: Jessica Grannis, Julia Wyman, Meagan Singer, Jena Shoaf & Colin Lynch, Coastal Management in the Face of Rising Seas: Legal Strategies for Connecticut, 5 Sea Grant L. & Pol'y 59 (2012), http://nsglc.olemiss.edu/SGLPJ/SGLPJ.htm.: http://nsglc.olemiss.edu/SGLPJ/SGLPJ.htm
[66] ↑ Lausche, Barbara, and Luke Maier. "Sea Level Rise Adaptation: Emerging Lessons for Local Policy Development." Mote Marine Laboratory. Technical Report No. 1723. https://www.academia.edu/5365821/Sea_Level_Rise_Adaptation_Emerging_Lessons_for_Local_Policy_Development.: https://www.academia.edu/5365821/Sea_Level_Rise_Adaptation_Emerging_Lessons_for_Local_Policy_Development
[67] ↑ Smit, B. (2001). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. Executive summary. In (book chapter): Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. (eds.)). ISBN 0-521-80768-9. Archivado desde el original el 21 de octubre de 2014. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20141021123355/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/642.htm
[68] ↑ Smit, B. (23 de diciembre de 2009). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. 18.6.1. Adaptive Capacity and Sustainable Development. In (book chapter): Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. (eds.)). ISBN 0-521-80768-9. Archivado desde el original el 23 de diciembre de 2009. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20091223014417/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/653.htm#1861
[69] ↑ Ludi, E., Jones, L. and Levine, S. (2012) Changing focus? How to take adaptive capacity seriously. Overseas Development Institute Briefing Paper http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7532.pdf.: http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7532.pdf
[70] ↑ a b Jennings, Paul A. (febrero de 2008). «Dealing with Climate Change at the Local Level» (PDF). En American Institute of Chemical Engineers, ed. Chemical Engineering Progress 104 (2): 40-44. Archivado desde el original el 1 de diciembre de 2008. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20081201170516/http://www.aiche.org/uploadedFiles/CEP/Issues/2008-02/020840.pdf
[71] ↑ Mukherji, A. Revitalising Asia’s Irrigation: To sustainably meet tomorrow’s food needs 2009, IWMI and FAO.: https://web.archive.org/web/20071102102545/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Other/index.aspx
[72] ↑ Diverse water sources key to food security: report Archivado el 1 de septiembre de 2013 en Wayback Machine., Reuters, September 5, 2010.: http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/09/06/us-climate-water-idUSTRE68500820100906
[73] ↑ Fuchs, Dale (28 de junio de 2005). «Spain goes hi-tech to beat drought». The Guardian (London). Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.guardian.co.uk/weather/Story/0,2763,1516375,00.html
[74] ↑ Lloyd de Vries (29 de octubre de 2004). CBS News, ed. «Sapping A Hurricane's Strength, Research Under Way, But Actual Applications Still Decades Away». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/10/29/tech/main652303.shtml
[75] ↑ WMO DOCUMENTS ON WEATHER MODIFICATION APPROVED BY THE COMMISSION FOR ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES MANAGEMENT GROUP,SECOND SESSION, OSLO, NORWAY, 24-26 SEPTEMBER 2007 [1].: https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/arep/wwrp/new/documents/WM_statement_guidelines_approved.pdf
[76] ↑ animana.org.: http://www.animana.org/
[77] ↑ Barker, T. (2007). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. 11.2.2 Ocean fertilization and other geo-engineering options. In (book chapter): Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz et al. (eds.)). ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. Archivado desde el original el 29 de marzo de 2010. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100329093235/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch11s11-2-2.html
[78] ↑ IPCC (2 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. C. Mitigation in the short and medium term (until 2030). In (book section): Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz et al. (eds.)). ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. Archivado desde el original el 2 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100502182529/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/spmsspm-c.html
[79] ↑ Royal Society (septiembre de 2009). The UK Royal Society's website, ed. Summary. In (document): Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty. RS Policy document septiembre/2010. ISBN 978-0-85403-773-5. Archivado desde el original el 8 de septiembre de 2011. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20110908221216/http://royalsociety.org/Geoengineering-the-climate/
[80] ↑ a b c Robert Kunzig (octubre de 2008). «Geoengineering: How to Cool Earth--At a Price». Scientific American. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=geoengineering-how-to-cool-earth
[81] ↑ Fao.org, ed. (26 de agosto de 2010). «Chapter 2. Food security: concepts and measurement[21&#93];». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4671e/y4671e06.htm
[82] ↑ Poverty in a Changing Climate Archivado el 13 de mayo de 2012 en Wayback Machine. IDS Bulletin 39(4):2, September 2008.: http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/bookshop/ids-bulletin/ids-bulletin-39-2008
[83] ↑ Poverty in a Changing Climate Archivado el 13 de mayo de 2012 en Wayback Machine. IDS Bulletin 39(4), September 2008.: http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/bookshop/ids-bulletin/ids-bulletin-39-2008
[84] ↑ Source: Unescopress. Unesco.org, ed. «"Migration and Climate Change" A UNESCO publication on one of the greatest challenges facing our time | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/sv/news/migration_and_climate_change_a_unesco_publication_on_one_of_the_greatest_challenges_facing_our_time
[85] ↑ Duus-Otterström, Göran and Sverker C. Jagers. 2011. "Why (most) Climate Insurance Schemes are a Bad Idea." Environmental Politics 20 (3): 322-339.
[86] ↑ Duus 2011, p.323.
[87] ↑ SwissRe (ed.). «Mind the risk: cities under threat from natural disasters». Archivado desde el original el 6 de octubre de 2014. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20141006075652/http://www.swissre.com/rethinking/climate_and_natural_disaster_risk/Mind_the_risk.html
[88] ↑ McAneney, J, Crompton, R, McAneney, D, Musulin, R, Walker, G & Pielke Jr, R 2013, “Market-based mechanisms for climate change adaptation: Assessing the potential for and limits to insurance and market based mechanisms for encouraging climate change adaptation.” National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Gold Coast, 99 pp.
[89] ↑ McAneney, et al. 2013, p.99.
[90] ↑ Holloway, J.M., Burby, R.J., 1990. “The effects of floodplain development controls on residential land values.” Land Economics 66 (3): 259–271.
[91] ↑ Bagstad, Kenneth J., Stapleton, K., and D’Agostino, J.R. 2007. “Taxes, subsidies, and insurance as drivers of United States coastal development.” Ecological Economics 63: 285-298.
[92] ↑ «United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Investment and Financial Flows to Address Climate Change, Executive Summary ¶ 11» (PDF). Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:GtE3kdqAqg0J:unfccc.int/files/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/application/pdf/executive_summary.pdf+unfccc+executive+summary&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShLpkr2HfiGDHpdJbmhVg8A1aPzMbnVQ-2qUKpKDFowHH5CWdLkipNvuEsNM_5Gmsw0H6qGyQlz6wLIVd6HQByvaNdmnazays1SKNkupFVZKvRZRMUY8W98Wa1xnUPfDkZ0h8OM&sig=AHIEtbRGW-W5dh6NF-k3M9gGPciHwWHHCg
[93] ↑ a b «UNFCCC Adaptation». 29 de abril de 2010. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/adaptation/items/4159.php
[94] ↑ «Financing Climate Adaptation Measures Using a Credit Trading Mechanism: Initial Considerations» (PDF). Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.thehighergroundfoundation.org/
[95] ↑ Matthew Baca. «Call for a Pilot Program for Market-Based Adaptation Funding». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1685027
[96] ↑ Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. Copenhagen. 7-18 de diciembre de 2009. un document= FCCC/CP/2009/L.7agosto de 2011 (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el de 2011 historial, la de 2011 primera versión y la de 2011 última).. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_15/items/5257.php
[97] ↑ Unfccc.int (ed.). «Transitional Committee for the design of the Green Climate Fund». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/green_climate_fund/items/5869.php
[98] ↑ «California Climate Adaptation Strategy». 6 de agosto de 2009. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.climatechange.ca.gov/adaptation/index.html
[99] ↑ «poor communities get help with climate adaptation: floating gardens». Archivado desde el original el 21 de septiembre de 2010.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100921131515/http://current.com/news/89856609_poor-communities-get-help-with-climate-adaptation-floating-gardens.htm
[100] ↑ TckTckTck, ed. (16 de abril de 2011). «The Global Campaign for Climate Action». Archivado desde el original el 16 de octubre de 2014. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20141016194142/http://tcktcktck.org/2011/04/green-climate-fund-clears-planning-hurdle
[101] ↑ «Climate talks end with modest steps, no Kyoto deal». Reuters. 12 de diciembre de 2010. Archivado desde el original el 19 de octubre de 2014. Consultado el 13 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20141019010212/http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/12/us-climate-idUSTRE6AR1OI20101212
[102] ↑ Spence, Chris. Climate-l.iisd.org, ed. «UNFCCC Publishes Green Climate Fund Documents - Climate Change Policy & Practice». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://climate-l.iisd.org/news/unfccc-publishes-green-climate-fund-documents
[103] ↑ «UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Seventh Meeting».: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/cop7/13a04.pdf
[104] ↑ «UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Article 4.9».: http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/ldc_work_programme_and_napa/items/4722.php
[105] ↑ «UNFCCC, NAPAs Received by the Secretariat.».: http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/submitted_napas/items/4585.php
[106] ↑ «Global Environment Facility, Least Developed Countries Fund».: http://www.thegef.org/gef/LDCF
[107] ↑ a b c Environment, U. N. (14 de septiembre de 2017). «Planes nacionales de adaptación | UNEP - UN Environment Programme». www.unep.org. Consultado el 4 de diciembre de 2024.: https://www.unep.org/es/explore-topics/cambio-climatico/lo-que-hacemos/adaptacion-al-cambio-climatico/planes-nacionales-de
[108] ↑ «Los Planes de Adaptación Nacional como herramienta para el desarrollo y la recuperación económica - UNEP-REGATTA». cambioclimatico-regatta.org. Consultado el 4 de diciembre de 2024.: https://cambioclimatico-regatta.org/index.php/en/latest-news/item/los-planes-de-adaptacion-nacional-como-herramienta-para-el-desarrollo-y-la-recuperacion-economica#:~:text=Los%20Planes%20Nacionales%20de%20Adaptaci%C3%B3n,de%20adaptaci%C3%B3n%20para%20hacerle%20frente.
[109] ↑ Programme, United Nations Environment (2023-10). National Adaptation Planning: Emerging Lessons Learned from UNEP Projects - Policy Brief (en inglés). ISBN 978-92-807-4072-1. Consultado el 4 de diciembre de 2024.: https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/43652
[110] ↑ Environment, U. N. (1 de noviembre de 2022). «Adaptation Gap Report 2022 | UNEP - UN Environment Programme». www.unep.org (en inglés). Consultado el 4 de diciembre de 2024.: https://www.unep.org/resources/adaptation-gap-report-2022
[111] ↑ a b c «Plan Nacional de Adaptación al Cambio Climático: Proyecto 88492». Reporte (Asunción, Paraguay). 2016. Consultado el 4 de diciembre de 2024.: https://unfccc.int/documents/306984

The need for adaptation

Contenido

National Academy of Sciences

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

IPCC Working Group II

IPCC Working Group II maintains that mitigation and adaptation must be complementary components of a strategy that responds to global warming. Their report makes the following observations:.

• - Adaptation is a necessary strategy at all levels as a complement to climate change mitigation efforts.

• - People with fewer resources have less capacity to adapt and are the most vulnerable.

• - Adaptation, sustainable development and improving equity can be mutually reinforcing.[22].

Adaptation is a necessary strategy

disadvantaged nations

Mutual reinforcement

Mitigation

Compensation and economics

UNFCCC

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

Conceptualizing adaptation

Costs

The United Nations Development Program estimates that an additional $86 billion per year would be needed in 2015.[45].

The benefits of forceful, early action in mitigation considerably outweigh the costs.[50] The Copenhagen Accord was agreed in order to create a commitment by developed countries to provide:[51].

- Climate financing qualified as aid, but additional to (above) the '0.7%' objective of the MDGs;.

- The previous year's increase in Official Development Assistance (ODM) dedicated to climate change mitigation;

- Increasing MDG levels that include climate change, but finances are limited to a certain percentage; and increased climate finance is not connected to the MDG.

Adaptation methods

Adaptation through local planning

• - Community knowledge of sea level rise construction as a local risk.

• - Carrying out a scientific evaluation of these risks in the medium and long term.

• - The use of a public process to develop an adaptation plan and supporting policies.

Improve adaptive capacity

• - Improve access to resources.

• - Poverty reduction.

• - Reducing resource and wealth inequalities between groups.

• - Improve education and information.

• - Improve infrastructure.

• - Improve institutional capacity and efficiency.

• - Promote local indigenous practices, knowledge and experiences.

agricultural production

Drought-tolerant crop varieties

More spending on irrigation

• - Modernization of existing irrigation systems to adapt to modern cultivation methods.

• - Support farmers' efforts to find their own water supplies, exploring groundwater sustainably.

• - Look beyond conventional "Participatory Irrigation Management" schemes, through the participation of the private sector.

• - Expansion of capacity and knowledge.

• - Investment outside the irrigation sector.[71].

forest resources

Rainwater storage

Time control

Glacial lake damming

Geoengineering

Helping disadvantaged countries

Migration

Insurance

• - The transfer of risk to the public treasury does not reduce the overall risk.

• - Governments can spread the cost of losses over time rather than space.

• - Governments can force homeowners in low-risk areas to subsidize the insurance premiums of those in high-risk areas.

• - Cross-subsidizing is increasingly difficult for private sector insurers operating in a competitive market.

• - Governments can tax people to pay for tomorrow's disaster.

Adaptation measures by country

National Program of Action for Adaptation

National adaptation plans

• - Adaptation to climate change in Jordan").

• - Bali Route Map").

• - Climate bond").

• - Climate change denial.

• - Climate Vulnerability Monitor").

• - Effects of climate change on human beings").

• - Collaboratory for Adaptation to Climate Change from University of Notre Dame.

• - Gary Tabor"), catalyst of large landscape conservation and wildlife corridors as an adaptive solution to global warming.

• - ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability

ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA").

• - Climate Leadership Group.

• - Resistance to climate change").

References

[1] ↑ «UNFCCC Glossary of Climate Change Acronyms» (en inglés). Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/glossary/items/3666.php
[2] ↑ Smit et al., Chapter 18: Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity Archivado el 17 de enero de 2012 en Wayback Machine., Section 18.2.3: Adaptation Types and Forms Archivado el 12 de diciembre de 2009 en Wayback Machine. (en inglés), en IPCC TAR WG2, 2001.: http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/641.htm
[3] ↑ a b IPCC, Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers Archivado el 9 de marzo de 2013 en Wayback Machine., Section 4: Adaptation and mitigation options Archivado el 1 de mayo de 2010 en Wayback Machine. (en inglés), en IPCC AR4 SYR, 2007.: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spm.html
[4] ↑ «Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability».: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/climate-change-2022-impacts-adaptation-and-vulnerability/161F238F406D530891AAAE1FC76651BD
[5] ↑ Verbruggen, A. (ed.) (3 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. Glossary J-P. In (book section): Annex I. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz et al. (eds.)) (en inglés). ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. Archivado desde el original el 3 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100503041746/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/annex1sglossary-j-p.html
[6] ↑ "UNFCCC Glossary of Climate Change Acronyms". Visitada el 24 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/glossary/items/3666.php
[7] ↑ a b c Klein; R.J.T. (21 de abril de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. Executive summary. In (book chapter): Inter-relationships between adaptation and mitigation. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry et al. Eds.) (en inglés). ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. Archivado desde el original el 21 de abril de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100421032759/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch18s18-es.html
[8] ↑ Farber, Daniel A (2007). «Adapting to Climate Change: Who Should Pay» (en inglés). Falta la |url= (ayuda); |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda) 23 FLA. ST. U. J. LAND USE & ENVTL. L. 1, 8.
[9] ↑ «Synthesis report». Sec 6.3 Responses to climate change: Robust findings (en inglés). , en IPCC AR4 SYR, 2007.: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains6-3.html
[10] ↑ «Appendix I. Glossary». Adaptive capacity (en inglés). , en IPCC AR4 WG2, 2007.: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/annexessglossary-a-d.html
[11] ↑ Steven C. Sherwood; Matthew Huber (2010). Kerry A. Emanuel; Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Cambridge et al., eds. An adaptability limit to climate change due to heat stress (en inglés). 107 No.21. PNAS. pp. 9552-9555. doi:10.1073/pnas.0913352107. Consultado el 13 de octubre de 2014. Se sugiere usar |número-editores= (ayuda).: http://www.pnas.org/content/107/21/9552.full
[12] ↑ Cole, Daniel A (2008). «Climate Change, Adaptation, and Development» (en inglés). Falta la |url= (ayuda); |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda) 26 UCLA J. ENVTL. L. & POL’Y 1, 3.
[13] ↑ IPCC (2007). Print version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website, ed. 4. Adaptation and mitigation options. In (book section): Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)) (en inglés). ISBN 92-9169-122-4. Archivado desde el original el 1 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100501175206/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms4.html
[14] ↑ Schneider; S.H.; S. Semenov; A. Patwardhan; I. Burton; C.H.D. Magadza; M. Oppenheimer; A.B. Pittock; A. Rahman; J.B. Smith; A. Suarez; F. Yamin (2 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. This version: IPCC website, ed. Executive summary. In (book chapter): Chapter 19: Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds.) (en inglés). ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. Archivado desde el original el 2 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100502171249/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch19s19-es.html
[15] ↑ D+C Development and Cooperation.: http://www.dandc.eu/articles/220605/index.en.shtml
[16] ↑ a b c Benito Müller (2008). «International Adaptation Finance: The Need for an Innovative and Strategic Approach 4 (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Working Paper)» (PDF). Archivado desde el original el 29 de febrero de 2012. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120229175020/http://www.eed.de/fix/files/doc/2008_BMueller_int_adapatation_finance.pdf
[17] ↑ For example, how to value impacts occurring in different regions and different times, and "non-market" impacts, e.g., damages to ecosystems (Smith et al., 2001).
[18] ↑ «New Assessment of National, Regional Impacts of Climate Change» (en inglés). U.S. Global Change Research Program. 16 de junio de 2009. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2016.: http://www.globalchange.gov/news/new-assessment-national-regional-impacts-climate-change
[19] ↑ «Adaptation To Global Climate Change Is An Essential Response To A Warming Planet». 8 de febrero de 2007. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070207171745.htm
[20] ↑ Engineering, and Public Policy (U.S.) Panel on Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming Committee on Science (2 de marzo de 2007). National Academies Press, ed. Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming: Mitigation, Adaptation, and the Science Base. p. 944. ISBN 0-309-04386-7. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=1605
[21] ↑ UNISDR (ed.). «Themes and Issues in Disaster Risk Reduction». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.unisdr.org/files/23647_themesandissuesindisasterriskreduct.pdf
[22] ↑ Grida.no (ed.). «Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability». Archivado desde el original el 7 de enero de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100107193527/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/010.htm
[23] ↑ a b IPCC (febrero de 2007). «Adaptation is a Necessary Strategy at All Scales to Complement Climate Change Mitigation Efforts» (en inglés). Consultado el 13 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tar/wg2/index.php?idp=10
[24] ↑ grida.no (ed.). «Adaptation is a Necessary Strategy at All Scales to Complement Climate Change Mitigation Efforts». Climate Change 2001: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Archivado desde el original el 7 de enero de 2010.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100107193527/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/010.htm
[25] ↑ Grida.no (ed.). «Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability». Archivado desde el original el 7 de enero de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100107193527/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/010.htm#29
[26] ↑ Yohe, G.W. (2 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. Web version: IPCC website, ed. Executive summary. In (book chapter): Perspectives on climate change and sustainability. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry et al., (eds.)). ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. Archivado desde el original el 2 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100502173108/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch20s20-es.html
[27] ↑ Schneider, S. (2001). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. 1.4.4.2. Synergies and Tradeoffs between Adaptation and Mitigation. In (book chapter): Overview of Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability to Climate Change. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. Eds.). ISBN 0-521-80768-9. Archivado desde el original el 21 de octubre de 2014. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20141021012207/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/062.htm#1442
[28] ↑ Toth, F.L. (2001). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. 10.4.2.1 Economic Considerations. In (book chapter): Decision-making Frameworks. In: Climate Change 2001: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz et al. Eds.). ISBN 978-0-521-01502-8. Archivado desde el original el 7 de diciembre de 2013. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.grida.no/
[29] ↑ Azar, C. (1998). «Are Optimal CO2 Emissions Really Optimal? Four Critical Issues for Economists in the Greenhouse». Environmental and Resource Economics 11 (3–4): 301-315. doi:10.1023/A:1008235326513. Archivado desde el original el 16 de marzo de 2012. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120316140445/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/azar_1998_four_crucial_issues.pdf
[30] ↑ Smith, J.B. (24 de febrero de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. 19.5.1. Aggregate Analysis: An Assessment. In (book chapter): Vulnerability to Climate Change and Reasons for Concern: A Synthesis. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. Eds.). ISBN 0-521-80768-9. Archivado desde el original el 24 de febrero de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.grida.no/
[31] ↑ a b Banuri, T. (1996). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A., ed. Equity and Social Considerations. In: Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.P. Bruce et al. Eds.). ISBN 978-0-521-56854-8. doi:10.2277/0521568544.: https://dx.doi.org/10.2277%2F0521568544
[32] ↑ Klein, R.J.T. (2 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. 18.5 Inter-relationships in a climate policy portfolio. In (book chapter): Inter-relationships between adaptation and mitigation. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry et al. Eds.). ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. Archivado desde el original el 2 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100502170442/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch18s18-5.html
[33] ↑ UNFCCC (9 de mayo de 2010). UNFCCC website, ed. «Essential Background». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/items/2877.php
[34] ↑ World Bank (10 de abril de 2010). The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433, ed. World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change. ISBN 978-0-8213-7987-5. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-7987-5. Archivado desde el original el 10 de abril de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100410171605/http://go.worldbank.org/BKLQ9DSDU0
[35] ↑ Adaptation Fund, ed. (27 de julio de 2010). «How to Apply». Archivado desde el original el 4 de marzo de 2011. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20110304211915/http://www.adaptation-fund.org/howtoapply
[36] ↑ Mukherjee, Sarah (13 de febrero de 2009). «CO2 reduction treaties useless». BBC News. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7888994.stm
[37] ↑ Institution of Mechanical Engineers (ed.). «2010 Releases». Archivado desde el original el 30 de noviembre de 2015. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014. 2010 Releases (roto desde octubre de 2010) (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://web.archive.org/web/http://www.imeche.org/media/press
[38] ↑ a b c d e «Assessment of adaptation practices, options, constraints and capacity» (PDF). 27 de agosto de 2010. Archivado desde el original el 27 de agosto de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100827182247/http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter17.pdf
[39] ↑ a b c d «Successful adaptation to climate change across scales» (PDF). doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.005. Archivado desde el original el 2 de abril de 2012. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120402025816/http://www.uea.ac.uk/env/people/adgerwn/Adgeretal2005GEC.pdf
[40] ↑ a b c «Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability» (PDF). doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.008. Archivado desde el original el 24 de junio de 2010. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100624132408/http://www.geog.psu.edu/pdf/Smit_Wandel_GEC.pdf
[41] ↑ Stockholm Environment Institute WikiADAPT, ed. (2 de julio de 2009). «Gender and Climate Change». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://wikiadapt.org/index.php?
[42] ↑ WikiADAPT, ed. (13 de diciembre de 2007). «Social learning». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://wikiadapt.org/index.php?
[43] ↑ a b Iied.org, ed. (16 de junio de 2010). «Adaptation to Climate Change in the Developing World». Archivado desde el original el 22 de septiembre de 2008. Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20080922205501/http://www.iied.org/CC/documents/adapt_to_cc.pdf
[44] ↑ Titus, James. «Strategies for Adaptation to Global Warming». Archivado desde el original el 11 de mayo de 2012.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120511040912/http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/downloads/adapting_japa.pdf
[45] ↑ Página 26 "Human Development Report" agosto/2007 United Nations Development Programme.: http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_Summary_English.pdf
[46] ↑ Martin Parry; Nigel Arnell; Pam Berry; David Dodman; Samuel Fankhauser; Chris Hope; Sari Kovats; Robert Nicholls; David Satterthwaite; Richard Tiffin; Tim Wheeler. «3». En International Institute for Environment and Development (UK); Grantham Institute for Climate Change; Imperial College London (UK), eds. Assessing the costs of adaptation to climate change (A review of the UNFCCC and other recent estimates) (en inglés). pp. 40-50. ISBN 978-1-84369-745-9. Consultado el 13 de octubre de 2014.: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/11501IIED.pdf
[47] ↑ Punto 26 "INVESTMENT AND FINANCIAL FLOWS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE" UNFCCC.: http://unfccc.int/files/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/application/pdf/executive_summary.pdf
[48] ↑ ePrints Soton, ed. (27 de marzo de 2010). «Assessing the costs of adaptation to climate change: a review of the UNFCCC and other recent estimates». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/73760/
[49] ↑ World Bank (2010). «The Cost to Developing Countries of Adapting to Climate Change. New Methods and Estimates. Consultation Draft.». Consultado el 11 de octubre de 2014.: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTCC/Resources/EACC-june2010.pdf
[50] ↑ "Note from the UN Secretary General regarding the Summit on Climate Change" 22 de septiembre de 2009.: http://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/climatechange/shared/Documents/Background_Paper.pdf
[51] ↑ a b c d Jessica Brown, Neil Bird and Liane Schalatek (2010) Climate finance additionality: emerging definitions and their implications Archivado el 3 de agosto de 2012 en Wayback Machine. Overseas Development Institute.: http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4931&title=climate-finance-additionality-definitions-implications
[52] ↑ http://www.epa.gov/eims/global/clim_res.pdf.: http://www.epa.gov/eims/global/clim_res.pdf
[53] ↑ Tompkins EL, Adger WN (2004) Does adaptive management of natural resources enhance resilience to climate change? Ecology and Society 9(2):10 [online] http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art10/.: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art10/
[54] ↑ Tompkins EL (2005) Planning for climate change in small islands: Insights from national hurricane preparedness in the Cayman Islands: adaptation to climate change: perspectives across Scales. Glob Environ Change 15 (2):139-149.
[55] ↑ Preston, B.L., Brooke, C., Measham, T.G., Smith, T.F., Gorddard, R. (2009) Igniting change in local government: Lessons learned from a bushfire vulnerability assessment. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 14 (3) pp. 251-283 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-008-9163-4.: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-008-9163-4
[56] ↑ City Prepares for a Warm Long-Term Forecast New York Times May 22, 2011.: https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/science/earth/23adaptation.html?_r=1
[57] ↑ Koch, Wendy (15 de agosto de 2011). «Cities combat climate change». USA Today.: http://www.usatoday.com/NEWS/usaedition/2011-08-16-climatechange11-START_ST_U.htm
[58] ↑ Revkin, Andrew C. (23 de mayo de 2011). «Cities Embrace the Adaptation Imperative». The New York Times.: https://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/cities-embrace-the-adaptation-imperative/?ref=earth
[59] ↑ «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 2 de noviembre de 2013. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20131102144605/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=all-climate-is-local
[60] ↑ Jowit, Juliette (11 de junio de 2006). «Gardeners can slow climate change». The Guardian (London). Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,1795001,00.html
[61] ↑ Selman PH (1996) Local sustainability: managing and planning ecologically sound places. Paul Chapman Publishing, London.
[62] ↑ Measham T.G., Preston B.L., Smith T.F., Brooke C., Gorddard R. Withycombe G., and Morrison C. (2011) Adapting to climate change through local municipal planning: barriers and challenges, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-011-9301-2.: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-011-9301-2
[63] ↑ For a summary of selected government responses from a range of jurisdictions, see: Antarctic, Climate and Ecosystems CRC (2011), University of Tasmania – Hobart, Australia, «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 1 de marzo de 2015. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20150301051028/http://acecrc.org.au/access/repository/resource/86d7f302-1512-102f-a3d0-40404adc5e91
[64] ↑ For review of local sea level rise adaptation initiatives in the United States, see Lausche, Barbara, and Luke Maier. "Sea Level Rise Adaptation: Emerging Lessons for Local Policy Development." Mote Marine Laboratory. Technical Report No. 1723. https://www.academia.edu/5365821/Sea_Level_Rise_Adaptation_Emerging_Lessons_for_Local_Policy_Development.: https://www.academia.edu/5365821/Sea_Level_Rise_Adaptation_Emerging_Lessons_for_Local_Policy_Development
[65] ↑ For analysis of adaptation options for Connecticut, see: Jessica Grannis, Julia Wyman, Meagan Singer, Jena Shoaf & Colin Lynch, Coastal Management in the Face of Rising Seas: Legal Strategies for Connecticut, 5 Sea Grant L. & Pol'y 59 (2012), http://nsglc.olemiss.edu/SGLPJ/SGLPJ.htm.: http://nsglc.olemiss.edu/SGLPJ/SGLPJ.htm
[66] ↑ Lausche, Barbara, and Luke Maier. "Sea Level Rise Adaptation: Emerging Lessons for Local Policy Development." Mote Marine Laboratory. Technical Report No. 1723. https://www.academia.edu/5365821/Sea_Level_Rise_Adaptation_Emerging_Lessons_for_Local_Policy_Development.: https://www.academia.edu/5365821/Sea_Level_Rise_Adaptation_Emerging_Lessons_for_Local_Policy_Development
[67] ↑ Smit, B. (2001). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. Executive summary. In (book chapter): Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. (eds.)). ISBN 0-521-80768-9. Archivado desde el original el 21 de octubre de 2014. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20141021123355/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/642.htm
[68] ↑ Smit, B. (23 de diciembre de 2009). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: GRID-Arendal website, ed. 18.6.1. Adaptive Capacity and Sustainable Development. In (book chapter): Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. (eds.)). ISBN 0-521-80768-9. Archivado desde el original el 23 de diciembre de 2009. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20091223014417/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/653.htm#1861
[69] ↑ Ludi, E., Jones, L. and Levine, S. (2012) Changing focus? How to take adaptive capacity seriously. Overseas Development Institute Briefing Paper http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7532.pdf.: http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7532.pdf
[70] ↑ a b Jennings, Paul A. (febrero de 2008). «Dealing with Climate Change at the Local Level» (PDF). En American Institute of Chemical Engineers, ed. Chemical Engineering Progress 104 (2): 40-44. Archivado desde el original el 1 de diciembre de 2008. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20081201170516/http://www.aiche.org/uploadedFiles/CEP/Issues/2008-02/020840.pdf
[71] ↑ Mukherji, A. Revitalising Asia’s Irrigation: To sustainably meet tomorrow’s food needs 2009, IWMI and FAO.: https://web.archive.org/web/20071102102545/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Other/index.aspx
[72] ↑ Diverse water sources key to food security: report Archivado el 1 de septiembre de 2013 en Wayback Machine., Reuters, September 5, 2010.: http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/09/06/us-climate-water-idUSTRE68500820100906
[73] ↑ Fuchs, Dale (28 de junio de 2005). «Spain goes hi-tech to beat drought». The Guardian (London). Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.guardian.co.uk/weather/Story/0,2763,1516375,00.html
[74] ↑ Lloyd de Vries (29 de octubre de 2004). CBS News, ed. «Sapping A Hurricane's Strength, Research Under Way, But Actual Applications Still Decades Away». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/10/29/tech/main652303.shtml
[75] ↑ WMO DOCUMENTS ON WEATHER MODIFICATION APPROVED BY THE COMMISSION FOR ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES MANAGEMENT GROUP,SECOND SESSION, OSLO, NORWAY, 24-26 SEPTEMBER 2007 [1].: https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/arep/wwrp/new/documents/WM_statement_guidelines_approved.pdf
[76] ↑ animana.org.: http://www.animana.org/
[77] ↑ Barker, T. (2007). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. 11.2.2 Ocean fertilization and other geo-engineering options. In (book chapter): Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz et al. (eds.)). ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. Archivado desde el original el 29 de marzo de 2010. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100329093235/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch11s11-2-2.html
[78] ↑ IPCC (2 de mayo de 2010). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y., U.S.A.. This version: IPCC website, ed. C. Mitigation in the short and medium term (until 2030). In (book section): Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (B. Metz et al. (eds.)). ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. Archivado desde el original el 2 de mayo de 2010. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100502182529/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/spmsspm-c.html
[79] ↑ Royal Society (septiembre de 2009). The UK Royal Society's website, ed. Summary. In (document): Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty. RS Policy document septiembre/2010. ISBN 978-0-85403-773-5. Archivado desde el original el 8 de septiembre de 2011. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20110908221216/http://royalsociety.org/Geoengineering-the-climate/
[80] ↑ a b c Robert Kunzig (octubre de 2008). «Geoengineering: How to Cool Earth--At a Price». Scientific American. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=geoengineering-how-to-cool-earth
[81] ↑ Fao.org, ed. (26 de agosto de 2010). «Chapter 2. Food security: concepts and measurement[21&#93];». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4671e/y4671e06.htm
[82] ↑ Poverty in a Changing Climate Archivado el 13 de mayo de 2012 en Wayback Machine. IDS Bulletin 39(4):2, September 2008.: http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/bookshop/ids-bulletin/ids-bulletin-39-2008
[83] ↑ Poverty in a Changing Climate Archivado el 13 de mayo de 2012 en Wayback Machine. IDS Bulletin 39(4), September 2008.: http://www.ids.ac.uk/go/bookshop/ids-bulletin/ids-bulletin-39-2008
[84] ↑ Source: Unescopress. Unesco.org, ed. «"Migration and Climate Change" A UNESCO publication on one of the greatest challenges facing our time | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/sv/news/migration_and_climate_change_a_unesco_publication_on_one_of_the_greatest_challenges_facing_our_time
[85] ↑ Duus-Otterström, Göran and Sverker C. Jagers. 2011. "Why (most) Climate Insurance Schemes are a Bad Idea." Environmental Politics 20 (3): 322-339.
[86] ↑ Duus 2011, p.323.
[87] ↑ SwissRe (ed.). «Mind the risk: cities under threat from natural disasters». Archivado desde el original el 6 de octubre de 2014. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://web.archive.org/web/20141006075652/http://www.swissre.com/rethinking/climate_and_natural_disaster_risk/Mind_the_risk.html
[88] ↑ McAneney, J, Crompton, R, McAneney, D, Musulin, R, Walker, G & Pielke Jr, R 2013, “Market-based mechanisms for climate change adaptation: Assessing the potential for and limits to insurance and market based mechanisms for encouraging climate change adaptation.” National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Gold Coast, 99 pp.
[89] ↑ McAneney, et al. 2013, p.99.
[90] ↑ Holloway, J.M., Burby, R.J., 1990. “The effects of floodplain development controls on residential land values.” Land Economics 66 (3): 259–271.
[91] ↑ Bagstad, Kenneth J., Stapleton, K., and D’Agostino, J.R. 2007. “Taxes, subsidies, and insurance as drivers of United States coastal development.” Ecological Economics 63: 285-298.
[92] ↑ «United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Investment and Financial Flows to Address Climate Change, Executive Summary ¶ 11» (PDF). Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:GtE3kdqAqg0J:unfccc.int/files/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/application/pdf/executive_summary.pdf+unfccc+executive+summary&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShLpkr2HfiGDHpdJbmhVg8A1aPzMbnVQ-2qUKpKDFowHH5CWdLkipNvuEsNM_5Gmsw0H6qGyQlz6wLIVd6HQByvaNdmnazays1SKNkupFVZKvRZRMUY8W98Wa1xnUPfDkZ0h8OM&sig=AHIEtbRGW-W5dh6NF-k3M9gGPciHwWHHCg
[93] ↑ a b «UNFCCC Adaptation». 29 de abril de 2010. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/adaptation/items/4159.php
[94] ↑ «Financing Climate Adaptation Measures Using a Credit Trading Mechanism: Initial Considerations» (PDF). Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.thehighergroundfoundation.org/
[95] ↑ Matthew Baca. «Call for a Pilot Program for Market-Based Adaptation Funding». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1685027
[96] ↑ Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. Copenhagen. 7-18 de diciembre de 2009. un document= FCCC/CP/2009/L.7agosto de 2011 (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el de 2011 historial, la de 2011 primera versión y la de 2011 última).. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_15/items/5257.php
[97] ↑ Unfccc.int (ed.). «Transitional Committee for the design of the Green Climate Fund». Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/green_climate_fund/items/5869.php
[98] ↑ «California Climate Adaptation Strategy». 6 de agosto de 2009. Consultado el 12 de octubre de 2014.: http://www.climatechange.ca.gov/adaptation/index.html
[99] ↑ «poor communities get help with climate adaptation: floating gardens». Archivado desde el original el 21 de septiembre de 2010.: https://web.archive.org/web/20100921131515/http://current.com/news/89856609_poor-communities-get-help-with-climate-adaptation-floating-gardens.htm
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[103] ↑ «UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Seventh Meeting».: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/cop7/13a04.pdf
[104] ↑ «UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, Article 4.9».: http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_developed_countries_portal/ldc_work_programme_and_napa/items/4722.php
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disadvantaged nations

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