3D printing in construction covers several technologies (mainly layer-by-layer extrusion and processes with binders) applied to the manufacturing of elements and buildings. Among the potential advantages noted in the literature are the reduction of execution times, less dependence on labor and a more efficient use of materials, with the possibility of reducing waste; However, recent academic reviews emphasize that the comparative evidence of costs and productivity continues to be case-dependent and that the technology "has not yet reached its full potential."[1][2] In particular, various analyzes point out that the mere printing of the envelope does not resolve time- and cost-intensive items of work—such as reinforcements, installations and, above all, finishes—which limits the overall competitiveness of the process compared to conventional methods in many scenarios.[2] Based on these limitations, over the years In 2020, proposals have emerged that seek to automate additional tasks beyond deposition - configuring a "second generation" - through robotic platforms that integrate printing with complementary operations (handling, drilling/cutting, placing or inspection) and the use of sensors and AI, with the aim of improving the efficiency of the process.[1] As an example of this second approach, Evocons develops a multifunctional robotic platform that integrates concrete 3D printing with other automated operations aimed at accelerating the process and the finishes. In 2024–2025, various media reported projects and demonstrations in Spain, including the inauguration of a building built with 3D printing, robotics and artificial intelligence with automated finishes and certification in accordance with Spanish regulations.[3][4][5] This development is associated with patent EP3733354B1.
History
The technological development related to this technique began in the 1960s, with the pumping of concrete and isocyanate foams.[6] At the end of the 1990s, experiments began with the construction of 3D printed houses by extruding concrete from a computer-controlled robot and in 2014 the first 3D printed house was made on the banks of the Amsterdam canals.[7][8] This house is not was 3D printed in its entirety, but the pieces of it were printed separately and later put together to create the final structure of the house. The main construction material was bioplastic, a type of plastic derived from plants or other biological materials instead of petroleum.[9][8].
3D printing by concrete extrusion
Introduction
3D printing in construction covers several technologies (mainly layer-by-layer extrusion and processes with binders) applied to the manufacturing of elements and buildings. Among the potential advantages noted in the literature are the reduction of execution times, less dependence on labor and a more efficient use of materials, with the possibility of reducing waste; However, recent academic reviews emphasize that the comparative evidence of costs and productivity continues to be case-dependent and that the technology "has not yet reached its full potential."[1][2] In particular, various analyzes point out that the mere printing of the envelope does not resolve time- and cost-intensive items of work—such as reinforcements, installations and, above all, finishes—which limits the overall competitiveness of the process compared to conventional methods in many scenarios.[2] Based on these limitations, over the years In 2020, proposals have emerged that seek to automate additional tasks beyond deposition - configuring a "second generation" - through robotic platforms that integrate printing with complementary operations (handling, drilling/cutting, placing or inspection) and the use of sensors and AI, with the aim of improving the efficiency of the process.[1] As an example of this second approach, Evocons develops a multifunctional robotic platform that integrates concrete 3D printing with other automated operations aimed at accelerating the process and the finishes. In 2024–2025, various media reported projects and demonstrations in Spain, including the inauguration of a building built with 3D printing, robotics and artificial intelligence with automated finishes and certification in accordance with Spanish regulations.[3][4][5] This development is associated with patent EP3733354B1.
History
The technological development related to this technique began in the 1960s, with the pumping of concrete and isocyanate foams.[6] At the end of the 1990s, experiments began with the construction of 3D printed houses by extruding concrete from a computer-controlled robot and in 2014 the first 3D printed house was made on the banks of the Amsterdam canals.[7][8] This house is not was 3D printed in its entirety, but the pieces of it were printed separately and later put together to create the final structure of the house. The main construction material was bioplastic, a type of plastic derived from plants or other biological materials instead of petroleum.[9][8].
The first prefabricated house printed entirely in 3D is in Holland, in the city of Eindhoven. This house was inhabited for the first time in April 2021 and is part of a construction project called Project Milestone, carried out by the Eindhoven University of Technology, the municipality of Eindhoven and the companies Van Wijnen, Saint-Gobain Weber Beamix, Vesteda"), and Witteveen + Bos"), whose objective is to build five houses like the one mentioned above. The construction process lasted 120 hours. First a base was built on the ground and later the roof along with various details that gave shape to the construction. The cement was applied using a large robotic arm that worked following the architect's instructions. The house has an area of 95 square meters and is made up of 24 pieces of concrete. The following Milestone Project homes are planned to be more architecturally complex and have multiple floors.[10][11].
American company Mighty Buildings, Inc. aims to build the first net-zero energy community using 3D printing on a two-hectare area in Rancho Mirage, California. This Oakland-based company "Oakland (California)") grew during the Covid-19 pandemic due to the ever-increasing demand for single-family homes[12] and plans to build 15 houses equipped with solar panels that are energy self-sufficient. The project will be carried out with the help of Californian real estate developer Basil Starr, CEO of Palari, and has a budget of $15 million. Each home will cost about $100,000 and will have three bedrooms, two bathrooms and backyards. In addition, other configurations will be available that have a secondary residence and other facilities such as electric vehicle charging ports. The price of these commissioned homes will vary between $559,000 and $950,000.[11].
Currently, academic literature indicates that, although 3D printing can reduce time and material in the deposition phase, overall competitiveness compared to conventional methods remains case-dependent. Challenges persist in quality control, reinforcement integration, regulatory compliance/standardization and, especially, in subsequent work items such as installations and finishes, which concentrate time and cost when only the envelope is printed.[13].
Likewise, adoption studies in emerging markets and in public procurement point to institutional and market barriers, initial costs of equipment and R&D, lack of specialized training, bidding frameworks and still immature sustainability criteria, which condition the diffusion of the technology at scale.[14].
Based on these limitations, in the 2020s a "second generation" of solutions has taken shape that seeks to automate more tasks in the construction cycle: robotic platforms capable of printing and, in addition, carrying out complementary operations by changing tools and sensor/AI integration, with the aim of improving the efficiency of the process and the return on investment.[13].
As an example of this second approach, Evocons develops a multifunctional robotic platform that integrates 3D concrete printing with other automated operations aimed at accelerating the process and finishes by automating up to 60% of the construction process. Technical and general media have collected recent demonstrations and projects in Gran Canaria with certification in accordance with Spanish regulations. This development is associated with a patented technology (patent EP3733354B1).[4][5].
In October 2024, the Agüimes City Council published the tender "La Goleta Training Center - Building proposal executed in 3D printing" (file 2024/8177N).[15][16] According to the municipal communication collected by the press, it was presented as the first initiative promoted by a public administration in Europe to execute a municipal building using this technology; The document also stipulated a minimum degree of automation, framing the tender as a step of institutional trust towards the deployment of new generation automated construction solutions.[16][15].
3D printing techniques
Contour Crafting
Process based on a 3D printer that has the ability to print large pieces. It works through a print head that moves horizontally and vertically following the computer's instructions through the GCODE file. The head extrudes fast-drying concrete layer by layer and has an outer paddle to improve the finish. Using this system, a 185 m² house can be built in 24 hours, including windows and electrical and water installations.[17].
D-Shape
System that is characterized by being able to easily imitate stone shapes that are reminiscent of nature. Using the D-Shape you can make a home in one go, from the basement to the roof. The printer is made up of a 6x6 meter aluminum frame that moves in the Z axis along four pillars that are moved by motors and a 300-nozzle print head. The process is based on a specific application of sand and a binder that hardens after 24 hours, creating a composition similar to Sorel cement.[17].
Concrete printing
This concrete-based system can create more diverse shapes and sizes than previous ones. However, because the printer head does not have extrusion paddles, the finish is of lower quality.[17].
3D printing machinery
Cable suspension
System that consists of a head suspended in the air and supported by cables whose movement is controlled by motors. The advantages of this method are that it is an easy solution to transport and that it is capable of printing on large surfaces.[7].
robotic arm
System that allows more versatile printing than the previous one because it is carried out by robotic arms with six degrees of freedom. The extrusion system is the same as in other systems but is limited by the radius of the robotic arm.[7].
Mini robots
Construction using small robots with wheels and great movement capacity that build the building "grain by grain". Ideal system to build in areas that are difficult to access but which is currently difficult to carry out due to the lack of knowledge about how to coordinate robots correctly.[17][7].
Multifunctional robot
Robotic platforms that integrate 3D printing with other construction operations by changing tools (for example, pouring and leveling, finishing treatments, material handling, cutting/drilling or light milling of surfaces), supported by sensors and AI. This approach seeks to cover subsequent items that limit the competitiveness of exclusively printing systems, and is part of the transition towards a "second generation" described in the technical literature.[13][1] As an example that integrates printing with additional operations, Evocons has presented a multifunctional robotic platform with demonstrations and projects in Spain, with certification in accordance with Spanish regulations.[4][5] In addition, in the European ecosystem there are complementary solutions aimed at specific construction tasks that reflect this convergence towards multipurpose robots, such as BauBot (Fischer), which automates drilling and marking,[18] or the nLink Mobile Drilling Robot for drilling on roofs.[19][19].
[2] ↑ a b Wolfs, Rob (2023). «The status quo of 3D concrete printing: are we there yet?». RILEM Technical Letters (en inglés) 8: 182-189. doi:10.21809/rilemtechlett.2023.197.: https://letters.rilem.net/index.php/rilem/article/view/197
[6] ↑ Papanek (1971). Design for the Real World. ISBN 978-0897331531.
[7] ↑ a b c d Castro Mingorance, C. (2021). Impresión 3D como método constructivo alternativo, la Casa Henfel (Bachelor's thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya).
[13] ↑ a b c Wolfs, Rob J.M. (2023). «The status quo of 3D concrete printing: are we there yet?». RILEM Technical Letters (en inglés) 8: 182-189. doi:10.21809/rilemtechlett.2023.197.: https://letters.rilem.net/index.php/rilem/article/view/197
[14] ↑ Shivendra, B.T.; Shahaji; Sharath Chandra, S.; Singh, A.K.; Kumar, R.; Kumar, N.; Tantri, A.; Naganna, S.R. (2024). «A Path towards SDGs: Investigation of the Challenges in Adopting 3D Concrete Printing in India». Infrastructures (en inglés) 9 (9): 166. doi:10.3390/infrastructures9090166.: https://www.mdpi.com/2412-3811/9/9/166
[20] ↑ a b Amado Soriano, S. (2019). Diseño de una impresora 3D para la construcción de viviendas (Bachelor's thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya).
The first prefabricated house printed entirely in 3D is in Holland, in the city of Eindhoven. This house was inhabited for the first time in April 2021 and is part of a construction project called Project Milestone, carried out by the Eindhoven University of Technology, the municipality of Eindhoven and the companies Van Wijnen, Saint-Gobain Weber Beamix, Vesteda"), and Witteveen + Bos"), whose objective is to build five houses like the one mentioned above. The construction process lasted 120 hours. First a base was built on the ground and later the roof along with various details that gave shape to the construction. The cement was applied using a large robotic arm that worked following the architect's instructions. The house has an area of 95 square meters and is made up of 24 pieces of concrete. The following Milestone Project homes are planned to be more architecturally complex and have multiple floors.[10][11].
American company Mighty Buildings, Inc. aims to build the first net-zero energy community using 3D printing on a two-hectare area in Rancho Mirage, California. This Oakland-based company "Oakland (California)") grew during the Covid-19 pandemic due to the ever-increasing demand for single-family homes[12] and plans to build 15 houses equipped with solar panels that are energy self-sufficient. The project will be carried out with the help of Californian real estate developer Basil Starr, CEO of Palari, and has a budget of $15 million. Each home will cost about $100,000 and will have three bedrooms, two bathrooms and backyards. In addition, other configurations will be available that have a secondary residence and other facilities such as electric vehicle charging ports. The price of these commissioned homes will vary between $559,000 and $950,000.[11].
Currently, academic literature indicates that, although 3D printing can reduce time and material in the deposition phase, overall competitiveness compared to conventional methods remains case-dependent. Challenges persist in quality control, reinforcement integration, regulatory compliance/standardization and, especially, in subsequent work items such as installations and finishes, which concentrate time and cost when only the envelope is printed.[13].
Likewise, adoption studies in emerging markets and in public procurement point to institutional and market barriers, initial costs of equipment and R&D, lack of specialized training, bidding frameworks and still immature sustainability criteria, which condition the diffusion of the technology at scale.[14].
Based on these limitations, in the 2020s a "second generation" of solutions has taken shape that seeks to automate more tasks in the construction cycle: robotic platforms capable of printing and, in addition, carrying out complementary operations by changing tools and sensor/AI integration, with the aim of improving the efficiency of the process and the return on investment.[13].
As an example of this second approach, Evocons develops a multifunctional robotic platform that integrates 3D concrete printing with other automated operations aimed at accelerating the process and finishes by automating up to 60% of the construction process. Technical and general media have collected recent demonstrations and projects in Gran Canaria with certification in accordance with Spanish regulations. This development is associated with a patented technology (patent EP3733354B1).[4][5].
In October 2024, the Agüimes City Council published the tender "La Goleta Training Center - Building proposal executed in 3D printing" (file 2024/8177N).[15][16] According to the municipal communication collected by the press, it was presented as the first initiative promoted by a public administration in Europe to execute a municipal building using this technology; The document also stipulated a minimum degree of automation, framing the tender as a step of institutional trust towards the deployment of new generation automated construction solutions.[16][15].
3D printing techniques
Contour Crafting
Process based on a 3D printer that has the ability to print large pieces. It works through a print head that moves horizontally and vertically following the computer's instructions through the GCODE file. The head extrudes fast-drying concrete layer by layer and has an outer paddle to improve the finish. Using this system, a 185 m² house can be built in 24 hours, including windows and electrical and water installations.[17].
D-Shape
System that is characterized by being able to easily imitate stone shapes that are reminiscent of nature. Using the D-Shape you can make a home in one go, from the basement to the roof. The printer is made up of a 6x6 meter aluminum frame that moves in the Z axis along four pillars that are moved by motors and a 300-nozzle print head. The process is based on a specific application of sand and a binder that hardens after 24 hours, creating a composition similar to Sorel cement.[17].
Concrete printing
This concrete-based system can create more diverse shapes and sizes than previous ones. However, because the printer head does not have extrusion paddles, the finish is of lower quality.[17].
3D printing machinery
Cable suspension
System that consists of a head suspended in the air and supported by cables whose movement is controlled by motors. The advantages of this method are that it is an easy solution to transport and that it is capable of printing on large surfaces.[7].
robotic arm
System that allows more versatile printing than the previous one because it is carried out by robotic arms with six degrees of freedom. The extrusion system is the same as in other systems but is limited by the radius of the robotic arm.[7].
Mini robots
Construction using small robots with wheels and great movement capacity that build the building "grain by grain". Ideal system to build in areas that are difficult to access but which is currently difficult to carry out due to the lack of knowledge about how to coordinate robots correctly.[17][7].
Multifunctional robot
Robotic platforms that integrate 3D printing with other construction operations by changing tools (for example, pouring and leveling, finishing treatments, material handling, cutting/drilling or light milling of surfaces), supported by sensors and AI. This approach seeks to cover subsequent items that limit the competitiveness of exclusively printing systems, and is part of the transition towards a "second generation" described in the technical literature.[13][1] As an example that integrates printing with additional operations, Evocons has presented a multifunctional robotic platform with demonstrations and projects in Spain, with certification in accordance with Spanish regulations.[4][5] In addition, in the European ecosystem there are complementary solutions aimed at specific construction tasks that reflect this convergence towards multipurpose robots, such as BauBot (Fischer), which automates drilling and marking,[18] or the nLink Mobile Drilling Robot for drilling on roofs.[19][19].
[2] ↑ a b Wolfs, Rob (2023). «The status quo of 3D concrete printing: are we there yet?». RILEM Technical Letters (en inglés) 8: 182-189. doi:10.21809/rilemtechlett.2023.197.: https://letters.rilem.net/index.php/rilem/article/view/197
[6] ↑ Papanek (1971). Design for the Real World. ISBN 978-0897331531.
[7] ↑ a b c d Castro Mingorance, C. (2021). Impresión 3D como método constructivo alternativo, la Casa Henfel (Bachelor's thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya).
[13] ↑ a b c Wolfs, Rob J.M. (2023). «The status quo of 3D concrete printing: are we there yet?». RILEM Technical Letters (en inglés) 8: 182-189. doi:10.21809/rilemtechlett.2023.197.: https://letters.rilem.net/index.php/rilem/article/view/197
[14] ↑ Shivendra, B.T.; Shahaji; Sharath Chandra, S.; Singh, A.K.; Kumar, R.; Kumar, N.; Tantri, A.; Naganna, S.R. (2024). «A Path towards SDGs: Investigation of the Challenges in Adopting 3D Concrete Printing in India». Infrastructures (en inglés) 9 (9): 166. doi:10.3390/infrastructures9090166.: https://www.mdpi.com/2412-3811/9/9/166
[20] ↑ a b Amado Soriano, S. (2019). Diseño de una impresora 3D para la construcción de viviendas (Bachelor's thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya).